1、Chapter 4 Word formation II This chapter discusses in detail the various means of word formation: three major means of word formation, namely affixation, compounding, conversion and five minor ones, namely, blending, clipping, acronymy, back-formation, words from proper names. It also describes the
2、characteristics of compounds.,Main Points1.AffixationPrefixation: 9 classes of prefixesSuffixation: 4 classes of suffixesCharacteristics of prefixes and suffixes2.Compounding1) Characteristics of compoundingPhonological featureSemantic feature Grammatical feature2)Formation of compoundsCompound noun
3、sCompound adjectivesCompound verbs3. ConversionConversion to nounsConversion to verbs,4. Blending: 4 patterns5. Clipping: 4 patterns6. AcronymyInitialisms Acronyms7. Back-formation: 4 types of words8. Words from proper namesNames of peopleNames of places Names of booksTradenames,According to Pyles &
4、 Algeo(1982),4.1 Affixation or Derivation.(词缀法) Affixation is the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as derivation. The words formed in this way are called derivatives（派生词). According to the positions of affixes in words, affixation
5、 can be classified into two types: prefixation and suffixation. Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. (characteristic),Classification of prefixes on a semantic basis:1)Negative p
6、refixes: 表示否定的前缀,2)Reversative prefixes 逆反前缀,3)Pejorative prefixes 贬义前缀,4)Prefixes of degree or size 表示程度大小前缀,5)Prefixes of orientation and attitude,6)Locative prefixes 方位前缀,7)Prefixes of time and order表示时间，顺序前缀,8)Number prefixes 数字前缀,9)Miscellaneous prefixes 杂类1. auto- “self”, autobiography.2.neo-
7、“new, revived”, neo-Gothic.3.pan- “all, worldwide”, pan-African.4.proto- “first, original”, proto-type.5.vice- “deputy”, vice-president.,Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammat
8、ical function of stems, that is, they mainly change the word class. (Characteristics),Classification of suffixes on a grammatical basis:1）Noun suffixes (名词后缀) Denominal nouns (由名词转化的名词) The suffixes of this group are added to the end of noun stems to form concrete or abstract nouns. ee, -eer, -er, -
9、ess, -ette, -let, -age, -dom, -ery, -ry, -hood, -ing, -ism, -ship, etc. Deverbal nouns (由动词转化的名词) The suffixes of this kind are added to the end of verb stems to create nouns. ant, -ee, -ent, -er, -or, -age, -al, -ance, -ence, -ation, -ition, -tion, -sion, -ion, - ing, -ment, etc. De-adjective nouns
10、 (由形容词转化的名词) The suffixes of this group are added to the end of adjective stems to form nouns. ity, -ness, etc. Noun and adjective suffixes (名词和形容词后缀) ese,- an, -ist, etc.,2）Adjective suffixes (形容词后缀) Denominal suffixes (由名词转化的后缀) ed, -ful, -ish, -less, -like, -ly, -y, -al, -ial, -ical, -esque, -ic,
11、 -ous, -eous, -ious, etc. Deverbal suffixes (加在动词后的形容词后缀) able, -ible, -ive, -ative, -sive, etc. 3) Adverb suffixes (副词后缀) ly, -ward(s), -wise, etc.4）Verb suffixes (动词后缀) ate, -en, -ify, -ize, - ise, etc.,Difference between prefixation and suffixation: Prefixation is to create new words by adding pr
12、efixes to stems, suffixation makes new words by adding suffixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change part of speech of the stems but their meaning whereas suffixes do. The best way to classify prefixes: There are different ways to classify prefixes. We may classify them according to the alphab
13、etical order. We can also classify them according to their pronunciation. But prefixes do not generally change the word class of the stems but the meaning of stems. The best way to classify prefixes is in accordance with meaning.,4.2 Compounding 合成法或复合法 Definition of Compounding: Compounding, also c
14、alled composition, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is “a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.” (Quirk et all 1985). There are three
15、kinds of compounds: solid(固体形式，如silkworm, bedtime), hyphenated (连体形式，如honey-bee, town-planning) and open(分离体形式，如tear gas, hot line),Difference between compounds and free phrases( 复合词与自由词之间的区别)=Characteristics of CompoundsCompounds differ from free phrases in the following three aspects:1）Phonetic fe
16、atures: In compounds, the word stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in noun phrases the second element is generally stressed if there is only one stress. In cases of two stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the second w
17、hereas the opposite is true of free phrases.,2）Semantic features: Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.3）Grammatical features: A compound tends to play a single grammatical role in a sentence.,- Three Major Modes of
18、 Formation of Compounds Noun compounds（名词复合词） Adjective compounds（形容词复合词） Verb compounds(动词复合词),Noun compounds 1. nn: dog days, bar code. 2. nv: haircut, toothache. 3. vn: driveway, cut-throat. 4. an: darkroom, blueprint. 5. nv-ing: air-conditioning, brainwashing. 6. v-ing n: chewing gum, reading la
19、mp. 7. nv-er: stockholder, crime reporter. 8. advv: upset, outbreak. 9.vadv: put-off, have-not. 10.v-ingadv: going-over, carryings-on. 11.advv-ing: up-bringing. 12.advn: upgrade.,Adjective compounds 1. nv-ing: peace-loving, record-breaking. 2. av-ing: easy-going, ever-lasting. 3. na: care-free, warw
20、eary. 4. aa: icy-cold, bitter-sweet. 5. nv-ed: home-made, town-bred. 6. a(adv)v-ed: hard-won, quick-frozen. 7. n(a)n-ed: hot-tempered, lion-hearted. 8. numn: ten-speed, four-leg. 9. numn-ed: one-eyed, three-legged. 10. advv-ing: out-going, forth-coming. 11. v-edadv: worn-out, washed-up. 12.v-inga: b
21、iting-cold, steaming-hot. 13. adva: overcautious, all-round. 14. an: white-collar, long-distance. 15. vn: cut-rate, break-neck.,Verb compounds1.Through conversionnickname (n) to nicknamehoneymoon (n) to honeymoon2. Through backformationbottle-feeding to bottle-feedchain-smoker to chain-smokemass-pro
22、duction to mass-produce,4.3 Conversion (转换法/ 词类转化法)Conversion is the process whereby a word is changed from one part of speech into another without the addition of an affix. e.g. release v, release n. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. Since the words do not change in morphological str
23、ucture but in function, this process is also known as functional shift(功能转换) / transmutation or derivation by zero suffix （零位后缀派生法）or zero-derivation （零位派生法） Three Major Modes of Conversion: 1.Conversion to noun verb to noun, adjective to noun and miscellaneous conversion.,1)verb to noun Almost all
24、monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns. A. State (of mind or sensation)attempt, doubt, want, hate, desire, smell, etc.B. Event or activityswim, drive, wash, dive, laugh, search, etc.C. Result of the actionimport, catch, find, reject, reply, buy, etc.D. Doer of the actionhelp, cook, sneak, cheat, b
25、ore, flirt, etc.,E. Tool or instrument to do the action withlatch, cover, wrap, etc. F. Place of the actiondump, hide-out, pass, walk, turn, etc. He was admitted to the university after a three-year wait. This little restaurant is quite a find. It is a good buy. He took a close look at the machine.,
26、2)Adjective to nounUnlike verbs, not all adjectives which are converted can achieve a full noun status. Some are completely converted, thus known as full conversion, others are only partially converted, hence partial conversion. A. Words fully converteda white, drinkables, etc. B. Words partially co
27、nvertedthe poor, the wounded, the richer, the most corrupt, etc.,*Difference between partial and full conversionWhen adjectives are converted into nouns, some are completely changed, thus known as full conversion, and others are partially changed, thus known as partial conversion. Adjectives which a
28、re fully converted can achieve a full noun status, e.g. having all the characteristics of nouns. They can take a/an or s/-es to indicate singular or plural forms: a native, drinkables(饮料). Adjectives which are partially converted still keep adjective features. They should always be used with the, an
29、d they can not take s/-es to show plural form. Moreover, the words can have comparative or superlative degrees: the young, the most corrupt, and the poorer. 3)Miscellaneous conversionthe haves and have nots, ifs and buts, also-ran, has-been, ifs and therefores, hows and whys, etc.,2. Conversion to v
30、erb noun to verb, adjective to verb and miscellaneous conversion. 1)Noun to verb A. To put in or on Npocket the money, garage the car B. To give N or to provide with Nshelter the refugees, oil the machine C. To remove N fromskin the lamb, juice the oranges D. To do with Npump water, knife the steak
31、E. To be or act as Nnurse the baby, captain the team F. To make or change intocash the cheque, cripple the boy G. To send or go by Nmail the letter, bicycle,2)Adjective to verbConversion of adjectives into verbs is not as productive as that of nouns. The verbs converted can be used either transitive
32、ly to mean “to make-adjective” or intransitively to “ become adjective ”.e.g.He walked carefully so as not to wet his shoes.The photo yellowed with age.empty, dim, dirty, warm, cool, slow, clear, dry, narrow. 3)Miscellaneous conversionmuch, down, off, tut-tut, but, yes, up, near, out, further, round
33、, encore, shoo, shush.,In some cases, conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution. The most common changes are :(1) Voiceless to voiced consonanthouse (n, -s)-(v, -z), use (n, -s)-(v, -z),shelf (n, -f)-shelve (v, -v)(2) Initial to end st
34、ressconduct, permit, import, increase,export.3. Conversion to Adjectivese.g. over-the-counter out-of-town out-of-the-way out-of-shape out-of-control,4.4 Shortening:4.4.1 Blending(拼缀法) Definition: Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another
35、word. Words formed in this way are called blends or portmanteau words or telescopic words. Classification of blending by structure: 1)Head +tail e.g. flush flash + blush; botel boat + hotel;smog smoke+ fog; smaze smoke +haze;snark snake + shark;citrange citron +orange;galumph gallop +triumph; ballut
36、e ballon +parachute;motel, motor + hotel; advertistics advertising +statistics,2)Head +head e.g. comsat communications +satellite;psywar psychological +warfare;sitcom situation +comedy;telex teleprinter +exchange3)Head+ word e.g. medicare medical + care;telediagnosis television +diagnosis(远距诊断)；heli
37、pad helicopter +pad(直升机升降场)；psywarrior psychological +warrior(心理战专家);Eurasia Europe +Asia;autocamp automobile +camp(汽车野营),4)Word + tail e.g.tourmobile tour + automobile(旅游览车)；carbecue car +barbecue(火烤法处理废弃车辆的熔车装置)；videophone video +telephone(可视电话)；lunarnaut lunar +astronaut(登月宇航员),4.4.2 Clipping (截断
38、法)To shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead is another way of making a word. This is called clipping. e.g. exam examination or,Clipping refers to the process by which a word of two or more syllables (usually a noun) is shortened without a change in it
39、s function taking place. Advertisement, examination, gymnasium, laboratory, photograph. professor, all have commonly-used clipped forms: ad, exam, gym, lab, photo, Prof. Clipped words are generally used in less formal situations than their full-length equivalents: they indicate an attitude of famili
40、arity on the part of the user, either towards the object denoted, or towards the audience.,Classification of clipping:1)Front clipping(截前留后) e.g. phone telephone,quake earthquake, chute parachute, copter helicopter, scope telescope,busomnibus, dozer bulldozer.,2)Back clipping (截后留前)-The shortening m
41、ay occur at the end of the word, sometimes with an addition of -o, -y. e.g.ad advertisement, biz business, coke Coca-Cola, champ champion, doc doctor, gas gasoline, gent gentleman, info information, lab laboratory, lav lavatory, math mathematics, mec mechanic, pic picture, pro professional, vet vete
42、rinarian, ammo ammunition , telly television, dorm dormitory,mod modern,demo demonstration,fan fanatic.,3)Front and back clipping (截除首尾) e.g. flu influenza, script prescription(处方),vic convict, tec detective(侦探),fridge refrigerator4)Phrase clipping (词组截短)- Many phrases and sentences have shortened,
43、simply because they are too lengthy and used too often in conversation. e.g. pop popular music finals final examinations;daily daily paper; coop cooperative store;movie motion picture(电影)；pub public house;zoo zoological garden; perm permanent waves(烫发) ;jet jet-propelled plane; private private commo
44、n soldier; lube lubricating oil.,4.4.3 Acronymy(首字母缩略法) Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms. Words formed in this way are called initialisms andacronyms.Classification:1
45、)Initialisms(首字母缩略词) are words formed from the initial letters of words which are pronounced as sequences of letters. They are pronounced letter by letter. e.g. VOA, UFO (unidentified flying object), TV，IMF (International Monetary Fund), EEC (European Economic Community), GATT (General Agreement on
46、Tariff and Trade),GMT (Greenwich Mean Time ) IOC (International Olympic Committee) BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation)CAD (computer assisted design) TB (tuberculosis),2)Acronyms(首字母拼音词) are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. e.g. BASIC beginners all-purpose symboli
47、c instruction code(Basic 语言), SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Talks(限制战略武器会谈)，TEWT tactical exercises without troops (没有军队参加的军官战术演习)， AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome,dinky dual income, no kids +y (无子女的双职工夫妻)，nilk no income, lots of kids (无收入多子女夫妻)，,NOW National Organization of Women (全国妇联)，U
48、NESCO the United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization (联合国教科文组织)，sonar sound, navigation and ranging (声纳)，TEFL teaching English as a foreign language,waves Women Appointed for Voluntary Emergency Service (美国海军志愿紧急服役妇女队)，ROM read only memory (只读内存) SARSSevere Acute Respiratory Syndrome
49、,4.5 Back formation(逆生法) Back formation is a method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. Or Back-formation is the process of word-building by which elements are subtracted from a complex word. e.g. emote emotion, beg beggar, babysit babysitter, drowse drowsy. The majority of backform
50、ed words are verbs. There are two types of syntactic relation in verb compounds formed by backformation:1) Object + verb as sightsee (from sight-seeing) meaning somebody sees sights. Similar examples are: globe-trot (from globe-trotter or globe-trotting).2) Adverbial + verb, as spring-clean (from spring-cleaning) meaning somebody cleans in the spring. Back-formations of all kinds are more frequently found in informal than in formal language.,
