1、人类思维的脑机制,罗劲中国科学院心理研究所,思维至少包括三个成分，一是目前状态，二是与目前状态不同的目标状态，三是一些能够将目前状态转变为目标状态的途径或者行为。认知神经科学要回答的问题有两个，一是特定的思维过程有哪些大脑区域参与实现，二是这些大脑区域的活动究竟代表了怎样的信息加工过程。 思维与情绪情感的关系 思维和语言的关系 思维和心理表征的关系,思维与情绪情感的关系,Greene等人（2001） 研究的结果表明：对于故事1，大部分人会回答“是”，而对于故事2，大部分人会回答“否”。这是因为在故事2中当事人必须通过用力的推搡置一个人于死地，故而情感卷入较多所致。 Greene等人的脑成像研究
2、结果显示：相对于故事1类型的道德判断而言，故事2类型明显地激活了内侧的前额叶（BA 9和BA 10），扣带后回（BA 31），以及双侧的角回（BA 39）。以往的脑成像研究显示这些区域的功能可能与情绪活动有关，因此，Greene等人认为他们的研究结果直观地证明了情绪活动会参与复杂的道德判断。,思维和语言的关系,12 X 7 = ?詹姆斯：“伟大的思想家会预兆性地在一瞬间窥见事物之间的全部关系，整个过程发生的速度是如此之快以至于无法言表”爱因斯坦：“那些思想不是以语言的形式来临的，我极少用语言来思考，一旦思想来临，我事后也许会想到要用语言去表达它”。,有一条毛毛虫想过河，但河宽水深，又没有桥和渡
3、船，也没有谁能提供帮助它，请问这条毛毛虫如何渡河？变成蝴蝶飞过河老话说：男女七岁不能 不能怎样？不能同席,思维和心理表征的关系,“张三比李四高，李四比王五高，张三比王高吗？”,顿悟的大脑机制,Edward L. Thorndike 与尝试错误学习,历史回顾Wolfgang Kohler 与顿悟学习,Animal researches (1),Animal researches (2),Epstein et al. 1984. Insight in the pigeon: antecedents and determinants of an intelligent performance. Na
4、ture 308:61-62.顿悟是那些已经被掌握的独立技能的重新组合。,Studies with human: Breaking of mental set,Examples : candle problem,Subjects were given a candle, a box of nails, and several other objects, and asked to attach the candle to the wall so that it did not drip onto the table below.,Cognitive task analysis (1): can
5、dle problem,candle problem included:An unusual goal state that can not be achieved through common ways (i.e., to attach the candle to the wall by using those objects at hand); A critical object that has at least two possible functions, one normal but useless, the other no dominant but suitable The b
6、ox a) tacks container b) candle holder Subjects were usually fixated on the boxs normal function and could not re-conceptualize it in a manner that allowed them to solve the problem.,Cognitive task analysis (2): water-jug problem,To firstly induce certain problem solving set through repetition of th
7、e same method, then to examine the effects of mental set by a problem that could be solved through a very simple way.,研究的课题及意义,Having an inappropriate mental set can keep one from representing the problem in the most productive way, or from choosing the best solution strategy. Breaking inappropriate
8、 mental set means to insightfully replace the ineffective (usually conventional) way of thinking with a new effective one that had not been realized by the problem solver previously. Neural correlates of breaking of mental set still remained unknown.Because breaking mental set is a very strong brain
9、 process that that occurs in short time, it can be suitably investigated by neuroimage techniques such as event-related fMRI and ERP.,已经有的相关研究：shifting of mental set,One of the related research topics that have been investigated is the process of shifting mental set. Neural correlates of shifting me
10、ntal set were explored in tasks such as Wisconsin Card Sorting Task.,Shifting of mental set versus breaking of mental set,In Wisconsin Card Sorting Task and other similar tasks, subjects usually alter their ways of classification among few well-known dimensions (among color, shape, and number of sti
11、muli), for this reason, the areas exhibited in Wisconsin Card Sorting Task embodies the neural correlates of shifting rather than breaking of mental set.,初步研究,你杀死了他，但却得流你自己的血，是什么？_蚊子能挪走巨大的木头，却搬不动一枚小小的铁钉，是什么？河流只研究那些被试不能自行解决的谜语,Results: 额叶，颞叶，海马,初步研究的意义,初步确定与顿悟以及思维定式打破有关的神经网络。是自柯勒1917年提出顿悟的概念以来，首次探索顿悟
12、的大脑过程。,进一步的研究：额叶的功能研究一: AHA Puzzles,因为垫在底下的托子破碎了，所以食物完好无损.(假牙) 因为锁子突然断开，所以女孩的爆玉米花撒了一地。(关狮子的铁笼）因为丝特别粘，所以早餐棒极了。(蜘蛛网）因为布已经撕破，所以草垛变得很有用。(跳伞） 因为小棍子弯曲了，所以这个女人什么也看不见。(汽车车窗上的雨刮）,Task analysis,因为布已经撕破，所以草垛变得很有用。(跳伞）This task included:#a situation that could not be inferred from the text of the sentence; #a k
13、ey concept that had one dominant but useless meanings, in the above mentioned sentence, the word cloth is generally associated with something clothing-related, but cloth referred to the parachute in this problem.,Baseline items (B event),因为窗户关上了，所以办公室冷了空调因为放入了粉末，咖啡变的甜了糖,BMS (breaking of mental set)
14、B Event (n = 13, Random-effect, p 0.001, uncorrected),Key areas,Left ventrolateral PFCAnterior cingulate cortex (ACC,任务难度的影响,The response time (RT) was longer during BMS trials than during B trials. To further specify the regions differentially recruited depending on the degree of effort in problem
15、solving, as indicated by time-on-task, we examined the effects of item difficulties. The BMS event was contrasted with the difficulty solutions to which subjects evaluated as understandable, but fairly hard,Trials of understandable, but fairly hard” minus B trials = ACC + left lateral PFCTrials of u
16、nderstandable, but fairly hard” minus Trials of understandable and obvious” (i.e., BMS) = left lateral PFC + Visual area# Conclusion: Left lateral PFC was sensitive to the task difficulties, whereas ACC not.,研究二：脑筋急转弯问题,9个橙分给13个小朋友, 怎么分才公平 ?做成果汁 你所见到的最大影子是什么？地球的影子（黑夜） 什么东西明明是你的，别人却用的比你多得多？名子 一辆出租车在公
17、路上正常行驶，并且没有违反任何交规则却被一个警察给拦住了，请问为什么？警察要打的 小华明天考试，他已经把英语背得滚瓜烂熟，第二天考试还是不及格，为什么？考的是数学,Reasons to do this study,To get evidences from different type of problem.To get more strong effects of breaking of mental set.To detect the effect of ITI interval that was short in the first experiment (2 + 4 + 1, aver
18、age RT 1.87), but long in the present research (5 + 10, average RT 2.70),BMS Baseline (n = 12, Random-effect),Discussion,The fMRI studies showed activities in PFC and ACC to be associated with process of breaking mental set. Lateral PFC (especially the left PFC) was known to mediate the active compa
19、rison of stimuli held in workingACC appears to be involved in a wide range of activities that have been term collectively executive function. Both areas can mediate the process of competition and inhibition involved in breaking of mental set.,Discussion,In particular, the left PFC was known to subse
20、rve the inhibition of plausible lures in working memory level task, the competition and selection in semantic memory level task, and cognitive set shifting in problem solving level taskACC was known to reflect the detection of input conflict in Stroop task and the detection of output (response) erro
21、r or/and conflict in the tasks such as Eriksen flanker task and Continuous Performance Test (AX-CPT),Although the function of both areas are related to inhibition and conciliation of cognitive conflict, the role of these two areas might be different.,Smith and Jonides proposed ACC mediates the inhib
22、ition of preprogrammed responses, incorrect responses may often be preprogrammed in tasks such as Stroops but not in the item-recognition task, whereas ventral PFC activated in working memory level and reflect operation of attention and inhibition earlier in the processing sequence.A critical differ
23、ence between these two might be that the inhibition in working memory level is under the regulation of the processing strategy of subjects, whereas the inhibition of preprogrammed responses not.,Summary:,ACC: 前程序阶段的冲突（硬件水平的冲突）Lateral PFC: 工作记忆水平的冲突（软件水平的冲突）证据：1. 当冲突发生于意料之外时，ACC就参与信息加工 C.S. Carter, e
24、t al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 97, 1944 (2000) 。2. Wisconsin Card Sorting Task (shifting of mental set) 不包含 ACC O. Monchi, M. Petrides, V. Petre, K. Worsley, A. Dagher. J. Neurosci. 21, 7733 (2001) 3. 顿悟式问题解决不受元认知机制监控 J. Metcalfe, D. Wiebe, Mem. Cognit. 15, 238 (1987).,结论性假设：Shifting of ment
25、al set: Lateral PFCBreaking of mental set: ACC + Lateral PFC,该假设所引申出的两个预测：1. ACC在定势打破的早期信息加工阶段活动2. ACC的整体活动水平会因为被试熟知谜语的结构而降低，或者ACC的整体活动水平会随着被试做更多的谜语而降低。,假设1: ACC在定势打破的早期信息加工阶段活动,Evidence A: Left lateral PFC was sensitive to the task difficulties, whereas ACC not. The fact that the left lateral PFC,
26、but not the ACC, was sensitive to the difficulties of solutions, as indicated by time-on-task, implied that the early warning processing (i.e., the breaking process mediated by the ACC) involved equally in both the solutions of obvious to understand and the solutions of understandable, but fairly ha
27、rd. The differentiation of these two types of items occurred in the post-breaking stage, i.e., the shifting stage. That was, to the “difficult” solutions, subjects shifted or switched their thoughts among several possible explanations, after they had got the first impression of the criterion solutio
28、n and roughly known the direction that they should follow. This late shifting stage was subserved by left ventrolateral PFC but not the ACC.,假设1: ACC在定势打破的早期信息加工阶段活动,Evidence B: (in ERP studies) the dipole source analysis showed the neural generator located near or in ACC was able to account for mos
29、t of the variance in the observed difference wave (N380) between the BMS and B events.,假设2a: ACC的整体活动水平会因为被试熟知谜语的结构而降低,“Homophone”riddle 的研究“Homophone” puzzle is the type of Japanese puzzle that conceals a solution that is orthographically, but not semantically fitted to the puzzle. For example, wha
30、ts the animal that can win three times? the answer is salamander. In Japanese, salamander is read as san-shou-uo, while san has the same pronunciations as three and shou has the same pronunciations as win.,举例,What is the food male eat will die? (Osu-si) (Osu-si 寿司 is a type of traditional Japanese f
31、ood; “osu-si” also means male died “osu”: male; “si”: died. What is the place where one will become old if go to there? (Corridors) (Corridors 廊下 read as “rou-ka” in Japanese; “rou-ka” also means “becoming old” rou: old; ka: to become). What is the bird that is written in a newspaper? (Pheasants) (P
32、heasants read as “ke-ji”; “ke-ji” also means a type of writing in newspaper 記事). Where is the fearful place in a house? (Stairs) (Stairs 階段 read as “kai-dan”; “kai-dan” also means “fearful stories” kai: strange or terrible; dan: stories or talking). What is the vehicle in which we are forbidden to k
33、eep a fan? (Submarines) (Submarines 潜水艦 read as “sensui-kan”; “sensu-ikan” means “fan-forbidden” “sensu”: fan; “ikan”: forbidden). What is the tableware that is always new even if it is used in a dining room? (Plate) (Plate read as “sa-ra”; “sa-ra” also means “new”).,Logic of research,The adoption o
34、f homophone puzzles differed from adoption of aha and misleading puzzles in that all of the homophone puzzles share the same internal structure, i.e., these puzzles are constructed from the same principle; whereas the internal structures of aha or misleading puzzles are varied from one item to other
35、. Subjects were aware that they should search for a word whose pronunciation could be associated with a meaning that was different from the words original meaning but was suitable for the description of the puzzles when solving this kind of puzzles. Given the puzzle solver were able to expect the ge
36、neral distinctions of the solutions on homophone puzzle (although they did not know what it exactly was before seeing it), we predicted the involvement of ACC will be less robust than that in the first and second experiment with aha or misleading puzzles.,Results,Compared with the results in the sec
37、ond experiment using misleading puzzles, the volume of activation in left ventrolateral PFC were similar in two studies (1262 voxels in misleading puzzles, 1072 voxels in homophone puzzles, random effect analysis at threshold of p 0.001, uncorrected), but the volume of activation in ACC was much les
38、s in homophone puzzles than in misleading puzzles (912 voxels in misleading puzzles, 24 and 19 voxels in homophone puzzles, random effect analysis at threshold of p 0.001, uncorrected).,Comparison of “misleading” puzzle and “homophone” puzzle,假设2b: ACC的整体活动水平会随着被试做更多的谜语而降低,Block analysis,We compared
39、 the involvement of ACC across the three blocks in the first experiment with aha puzzles. Relative to the resting state, both the first block and the second and third blocks were associated with ACC activities. This implied the ACC subserved in the aha puzzle solving on the whole. However, relative
40、to the second and third block, the first block was also associated with ACC activation. The decrease of ACC activation across the blocks was consistent with the hypothesis that ACCs involvements were less on the whole when subjects were familiar with the puzzle solving.,Conclusion: Differentiate shifting and breaking,Shifting: the direction of information is expected; lateral PFC is enough to deal with Breaking: the direction of information is unexpected; ACC, together with lateral PFC, is needed to do the preliminary processing,
