1、Unit one A Brief History of EnglishPaul McHenry Roberts (1917- 1967) was an American author and journalist. He taught college English for over twenty years，first at San Jose State College and later at Cornell University. He published numerous books on linguistics, including Understanding Grammar (19
2、54)， Patterns of English (1956)， and Understanding English (1958). In this selection excerpted from the book Understanding English (1958)，Roberts recounts the major events in the English history and discusses their implications for the development of the English language.No understanding of the Engl
3、ish language can be very satisfactory without a notion of the history of the language. But we shall have to make do with just a notion. The history of English is long and complicated, and we can only hit the high spots.The history of our language begins a little after A.D. 600. Everything before tha
4、t is pre-history, which means that we can guess at it but cannot prove much. For a thousand years or so before the birth of Christ our linguistic ancestors, the Anglo-Saxons, were wandering through the forests of northern Europe. Their language was a part of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European
5、Family.Not much is surely known about the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons in England. We do know, however, that they were a long time securing themselves in England. Fighting went on for as long as a hundred years before the Celts in England were all killed, driven into Wales, or reduced to slavery. Thi
6、s is the period of King Arthur, who was not entirely mythological. He was a Romanized Celt, a general, though probably not a king. He had some success against the Anglo-Saxons, but it was only temporary. By 550 or so the Anglo-Saxons were firmly established. English was in England.It is customary to
7、 divide the history of the English language into three periods: Old English, Middle English, and Modern English. Old English runs from the earliest records i.e., seventh century to about 1100 ; Middle English from 1100 to 1450 or 1500; Modern English from 1500 to the present day. Sometimes Modern En
8、glish is further divided into Early Modern,1500-1700, and Late Modern.1700 to the present.When England came into history, it was divided into several more or less autonomous kingdoms, some of which at times exercised a certain amount of control over the others. In the sixth century the most advanced
9、 kingdom. Northumbria, developed a respectable civilization, the finest in Europe. It was in this period that best of the Old English literature was written, including the epic poem Beowulf. In the eighth century. Northumbrian power declined, and the center of influence moved southward to Mercia, th
10、e kingdom of the Midlands. A century later the center shifted again, and Wessex the country of the West Saxons, became the leading power. The most famous king of the West Saxons was Alfred the great, whose military accomplishment was his successful opposition to the Viking invasions. In the ninth an
11、d tenth centuries, the Norsemen emerged in their ships from their homelands in Denmark and the Scandinavian Peninsula. The linguistic result of all this was a considerable injection of Norse into the English language. Norse was at this time not so different from English as Norwegian or Danish is now
12、. Probably speakers of English could understand, more or less, the language of the newcomers who had moved into eastern England. At any rate, there was considerable interchange and word borrowing. Examples of Norse words in the English language are sky, give, law. egg, outlaw, leg. ugly, scant, sly,
13、 crawl, scowl, take, thrust. There are hundreds more. We have even borrowed some pronouns from Norse-they, their and them. These words were borrowed first by the eastern and northern dialects and then in the course of hundreds of years made their way into English generally.In grammar, Old English wa
14、s much more highly inflected than modern English is. That is, there were more case endings for nouns, more person and number endings for verbs, a more complicated pronoun system, various endings for adjectives, and so on. Present-day English has only two cases for nouns- common case and possessive c
15、ase. Adjectives now have no case system at all. On the other hand, we now use a more rigid word order and more structure words (prepositions, auxiliaries, and the like) to express relationships than Old English did. In vocabulary, most of the Old English words are what we may call native English: th
16、at is, words which have not been borrowed from other languages but which have been a part of English ever since English was a part of Indo-European. Old English did certainly contain borrowed words. We have seen that many borrowings were coming in from Norse. Rather large numbers had been borrowed f
17、rom Latin, too. Some of these were taken while the Anglo-Saxons were still on the Continent (cheese, butter, bishop, kettle, etc.). But the great majority of Old English words were native English. Now, on the contrary, the majority of words in English are borrowed，and only about 14 percent are nativ
18、e.Sometime between the years 1000 and 1200 various important changes took place in the structure of English, and Old English became Middle English. The political event which facilitated these changes was the Norman Conquest. The Normans, as the name shows, came originally from Scandinavia. In the ea
19、rly tenth century they established themselves in northern France, adopted the French language, and developed a vigorous kingdom and a very passable civilization. In the year 1066, led by Duke William, they crossed the Channel and made themselves masters of England. For the next several hundred years
20、, England was ruled by kings whose first language was French.One might wonder why, after the Norman Conquest, French did not become the national language, replacing English entirely. The reason is that the Conquest was not a national migration, as the earlier Anglo -Saxon invasion had been. Great nu
21、mbers of Normans came to England, but they came as rulers and landlords. French became the language of the court, the language of the nobility, the language of polite society, the language of literature . But it did not replace English as the language of the people. There must always have been hundr
22、eds of towns and villages in which French was never heard except when visitors of high station passed through. But English, though it survived as the national language, was profoundly changed after the Norman Conquest. It is in vocabulary that the effects of the Conquest are most obvious. French cea
23、sed, after a hundred years or so, to be the native language of very many people in England, but it continued - and continues still -to be a zealously cultivated second language, the mirror of elegance and civilization . When one spoke English, one introduced not only French ideas and French things b
24、ut also their French names. This was not only easy but socially useful. To pepper ones conversation with French expressions was to show that one was well- bred, elegant, au courant. The last sentence shows that the process is not yet dead. By using au courant instead of, say , abreast of thing the w
25、riter indicates that he is no dull clod who knows only English but an elegant person aware of how things are done in le haunt monde.Thus French words came into English, all sorts of them. These words to do with government：parliament , majesty, treaty , alliance , tax ,government ; church words：parso
26、n, sermon, baptism, incense, crucifix, religion; words for foods : veal , beef ， mutton , bacon , jelly， peach, lemon, cream, biscuit; colors : blue , scarlet , vermilion ; household words : curtain , chair , lamp , towel , blanket , parlor ; play words : dance , chess , music, leisure , conversatio
27、n ; literary words : story , romance , poet, literary ; learned words : study, logic , grammar , noun , surgeon , an atomy , stomach ; just ordinary words of all sorts : nice, second ,very, age bucket, gentle , final , fault , flower , cry , count, sure , move , surprise , plain All these and thousa
28、nds more poured into the English vocabulary between 1100 and 1500 until, at the end of that time, many people must have had more French words than English at their command. This is not to say that English became French. English remained English in sound structure and in grammar, though these also fe
29、lt the ripples of French influence. The very heart of the vocabulary, too, remained English. Most of the high-frequency words - the pronouns, the preposition, the conjunctions , the auxiliaries , as well as a great many ordinary nouns and verbs and adjectives-were not replaced by borrowings. Middle
30、English, then, was still a Germanic language, but it differed from Old English in many ways. The sound system and the grammar changed a good deal. Speakers made less use of case systems and other inflectional devices and relied more on word order and structure words to express their meanings. This i
31、s often said to be a simplification, but it is not really. Languages don t become simpler; they merely exchange one kind of complexity for another. Modern English is not a simple language, as any foreign speaker who tries to learn it will hasten to tell you. The period of Early Modern English -that
32、is , the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries -was also the period of the English Renaissance，when people developed , on the one hand , a keen Interest in the past and , on the other , a more daring and imaginative view of the future. New ideas multiplied, and new ideas meant new language. Englishmen
33、 had grown accustomed to borrowing words from French as a result of the Norman Conquest; now they borrowed from Latin and Greek. As we have seen, English had been raiding Latin from Old English times and before, but now the floodgates really opened, and thousands of words from the classical language
34、s poured in.Pedestrian,bonus,anatomy,controdict,climax,dictionary,benefit,multiply,exist,paragraph,initiate,scene,inspire are random examples. Probably the average educated American today has more words from French in his vocabulary than from native English sources, and more from Latin than from Fre
35、nch.The greatest writer of the Early Modern English period is of course Shakespeare, and the best-known book is the King James Version of the Bible, published in 1611. The Bible (if not Shakespeare) has made many features of Early Modern English perfectly familiar to many people down to the present
36、time, even though we do not use these features in present-day speech and writing. For instance, the old pronoun thou and thee have dropped out of use now, but they are still familiar to us in prayer and in Biblical quotations, such as “Whither thou goest, I will go.”The history of English since 1700
37、 is filled with many movements and countermovement, of which we can notice only a couple. One of these is the vigorous attempt made in the eighteenth century, and the rather half-heated attempts made since, to regulate and control the English language. Many people of the eighteenth century, not unde
38、rstanding very well the forces which govern language, proposed to polish and prune and restrict English, which they felt was proliferating too widely. There was much talk of an academy which would rule on what people could and could not say and write. The academy never came into being, but the eight
39、eenth century did not succeed in establishing certain attitudes which, though they havent had much effect on the development of the language itself, have certainly changed the native speakers feeling about the language.In part, a product of the wish to fix and establish the language was the developm
40、ent of the dictionary. The first English dictionary was published in 1603; it was a list of 2500 words briefly defined. Many others were published his English Dictionary in 1755. This, steadily revised, dominated the field in England for nearly a hundred years. Meanwhile in America, Noah Webster pub
41、lished his dictionary in 1828, and before long dictionary publishing was a big business in this country. The last century has seen the publication of one great dictionary: the twelve-volume Oxford English Dictionary, compiled in the course of seventy-five years through the labors of many scholars. W
42、e have also, of course, numerous commercial dictionaries which are as good as the public wants them to be if not, indeed, rather better.Another product of the eighteenth century was the invention of “English grammar.” As English came to replace Latin as the language of scholarship, it was felt that
43、one should also be able to control and dissect it, parse and analyze it, as one could Latin. What happened in practice was that the grammatical description that applied to Latin was removed and superimposed on English. This was silly, because English is an entirely different kind of language, with i
44、ts own forms and signals and ways of producing meaning. Nevertheless, English grammars on Latin model were worked out and taught in the schools. In many schools they are still being children, but it is sometimes an interesting and instructive exercise in logic. The principal harm in it is that it ha
45、s tended to keep people from being interested in English and has obscured the real features of English structure.But probably the most important force on the development of English in the modern period has been tremendous expansion of English-speaking peoples. In 1500 English was a minor language, s
46、poken by a few people on a small island. Now it is perhaps the greatest language of the world, spoken natively by over a quarter of a billion people and as a second language by many millions more. When we speak of English now, we must specify whether we mean American English, British English, Austra
47、lian English, Indian English, or what, since the differences are considerable. The American cannot go to England or the Englishman to America confident that he will always understand and be understood. It is only because communication has become fast and easy that English in this period of its expansion has not broken into a dozen mutually unintelligible languages.
