1、1. Oikarinen,Elias. Interaction between Housing Prices and Household Borrowing: The Finnish CaseJ.Journal of Banking Higgins and Osler, 1999; Collyns and Senhadji, 2002; Leamer, 2007) But this relationship is likely to be muted for three main reasons. First, real estate involves nonstandardized asse
2、ts that differ in quality and are (regionally) segmented. Second, the absence of central trading places implies imperfect information and price negotiations that both lack transparency and involve high transaction costs. Third, supply responses in the housing market are sluggish due to construction
3、lags and limited land availability (McCarthy and Peach,2004). As a result, sustained deviations from long-run equilibria are more likely in the housing market, relative to financial markets (Herring and Wachter, 1999).Theoretical studies assign the banking sector a crucial role infueling such deviat
4、ions. The so-called financial accelerator mechanism consists of two offsetting effects of house prices on bank stability (Kiyotaki and Moore, 1997). Increasing house prices boost bank capital by increasing the value of the real estate owned by the bank and the value of any collateral pledged by borr
5、owers. In particular, real estate price appreciation discourages sub-prime mortgage borrowers from defaulting (Daglish, 2009). Thus, increasing real estate prices should reduce the riskiness of banksassets and decrease the likelihood of financial distress in the banking sector ( Niinimaki, 2009). Th
6、is collateral value hypothesis suggests that increasing real estate prices enhance bank stability and predicts a negative relation between nominal house price changes and the banks probability of default (PD).Alternatively, soaring house prices could fuel the accumulation of risks by banks due to mo
7、ral hazard and adverse selection problems (Bernanke and Gertler, 1995; Allen and Gale, 2001). Rising house prices and the lower (perceived) risk of real estate financing can induce excessive lending to risky real estate borrowers at unreasonably low rates. Rising house prices also can encourage the
8、riskiest investors to bet on further price increases and demand credit from banks. Both factors lead to larger exposures and the accumulation of risky assets, which are prone to mispricing. Reversals in fundamentals then increase the odds of financial distress in the banking system. This deviation h
9、ypothesis suggests hat larger departures of house prices from their fundamental value increase the banks PD.This paper tests these two competing hypotheses empirically using detailed data on regional real estate prices and individual banks in Germany for 19952004. In doing so, we seek to address thr
10、ee important challenges that have plagued previous empirical work on the relation between real estate prices and banking stability: the comparability (or lack thereof) of real estate properties across markets in cross-country studies (e.g.,Hilbers et al., 2001;Holly et al., 2007), the need to accoun
11、t for deviations in house prices from fundamentals rather than focusing solely on price level developments in regional markets (Calomiris and Mason, 2003;McCarthy and Peach, 2004; Ayuso and Restoy, 2006), and absence of bank-level evidence about distress conditional on real estate imbalances and oth
12、er bank-specific characteristics for all financial institutions in a banking system ( Harrison and Ragas, 1995;Haynes and Thompson, 1999; Guo, 1999; Gan, 2004).Regarding the first challenge, aggregate studies use house price indicators and other macroeconomic data to predict crises (e.g.measured by
13、Kaminsky and Reinhart (1999). This approach largely ignores the inherent heterogeneity of immobile real estate asset across countries (BIS and IMF, 2005). In addition, the frequent neglect of regulatory differences, such as real estate financing schemes, tax laws, or the use of real estate as a coll
14、ateral, seem inadequately reflected in general international house price indices, which are often based on only a few observations in some major cities of the sampled countries (Davis and Zhu, 2005; Hilbers et al., 2008). We take the regional variation of house prices into account when measuring the
15、ir dynamics and deviation from fundamental value, using annual information on real estate prices in 125 German cities, consistently collected by the data provider Bulwien AG. Price developments vary across Germanys regions due to structural disparities in economic development and population growth r
16、ates, and they are likely to have differential effects on bank stability.Second, the crucial role of banks as financiers is often grossly simplified in regional studies, which merely include foreclosure rates (Calomiris et al., 2008). We use detailed data about bank distress signals, obtained from t
17、he Bundesbank, in conjunction with other financial indicators to measure distress directly at the bank level. Previous microeconomic evidence relating real estate market developments more directly to individual banks is mostly limited to specialized intermediaries such as thrifts (Guo, 1999; Gan, 20
18、04), savings and loan associations (Harrison and Ragas, 1995), or building societies and cooperatives (Haynes and Thompson,1999). However, Davis and Zhu (2005) point out that non-specialized banks are also exposed to the real estate market, because of either their indirect links through corporate cu
19、stomers that use real estate as collateral or their own direct lending. Therefore, we consider the relation between real estate markets and distress of both specialized and universal banks. Using the bank distress database of the Deutsche Bundesbank, we can directly estimate PDs for individual banks
20、, conditional on house price developments in the region where the banks are located. Thus, the financial distress measure we use is more precise than the common aggregate macro indicators.Finally, we introduce a direct measure of real estate market imbalances. Because increasing prices alone can hav
21、e both positive and negative effects for bank stability, as theorized by the collateral value and deviation hypotheses, the convention of merely specifying real estate price levels or changes seems inadequate. Instead we recognize that deviations from fundamentals create potentially hazardous imbala
22、nces at financial institutions. We therefore, calculate the deviation of house prices from their fundamental value, determined by regional macroeconomic variables, instead of relying on aggregate house price indicators at the country level.ConclusionThis study tests two competing views of the relati
23、on between real estate markets and bank distress: the collateral value and the deviation hypotheses. The former suggests a negative relation because rising nominal house prices increase the value of collateral pledged and enhance the financial positions of bank customers. The latter theory conjectur
24、es that house price deviations from fundamental values jeopardize bank stability due to excessively risky lending. Rather than merely relating the observed real estate price changes though, we estimate deviations from fundamental values in 78 regional real estate markets in Germany, thereby taking t
25、he heterogeneous and immobile nature of property explicitly into account. Furthermore, we use regulatory information about distress at the bank level. We thus can estimate the relation between real estate market disequilibria and financial fragility at the bank level.Even in Germanys real estate mar
26、ket, which is characterized by moderate price developments that differ considerably across regions, deviations from fundamental values exist. In line with US-based studies, we find that adjustment speeds are low. Within a year, house prices adjust by only 10% toward the equilibrium, which underscore
27、s the importance of considering not only real estate price levels and changes but also and in particular their relation to the macroeconomic conditions. Deviations in real estate markets are fairly dispersed across regions. In contrast to price-level changes, deviations contribute significantly to a
28、 banks probability of distress, which refutes the collateral value hypothesis. In line with the deviation hypothesis, the impact of real estate imbalances on bank stability is comparable in magnitude to the impact of cost efficiency, nonperforming credit shares, and liquidity levels. Specialized ban
29、ks are not significantly different from universal banks regarding the effect of house prices on PDs; universal banks have thus neither an advantage in terms of portfolio diversification nor disadvantages due to a potential lack of expertise in mortgage lending. Our results pertain to a relatively br
30、ief period in Germany, where real estate markets can hardly be called overheated. Further evidence about the real estate-financial fragility nexus from economies with different real estate market developments and longer time series would therefore be of great interest. Nevertheless, our findings are
31、 robust to the specification of different lags and further possible macro variables determining bank PDs directly, so we consider the reported evidence about the importance of real estate market deviations from fundamentals rather than price levels to be a general result.附录 2 主要英文参考文献翻译1.房价与银行信贷之间的双
32、向互动关系研究:以芬兰为例.摘要采用时间序列的计量经济学研究表明,80 年代后期以来,由于金融自由化,芬兰的住房价格和住房贷款之间存在的一个显著的双向互动,且作用力明显大于金融自由化之前。此外,房地产升值对优质的消费贷款股份有显着的正面影响。然而,股票价格和信贷之间却不存在类似的关系。由于二者的相互依存可以增加的经济的繁荣与萧条交替循环,提高金融部门的脆弱性,因此,了解住房价格和信贷之间的双向互动关系是十分重要的。简介理论预测,住房价格受信贷供应,特别是当消费者处于信贷约束中时可获取度高的信贷很可能会增加对住房的需求。在另一方面,房价可能显著通过各种财富效应影响家庭借贷。正如理论分析的一样,信
33、贷周期已经在很多国家被证实与住房价格周期相吻合。住房价格与家庭借贷之间的联系由于以下几个原因而显得十分重要。首先,如果信贷和住房市场之间的相互作用被解释可以使得我们更好的预测住房价格变动和改变家庭借贷。这不仅对建筑公司和银行有意义,也对货币政策和财政政策的制定有帮助。住房和信贷市场之间的相互作用可能促进经济的繁荣与萧条交替循环,增加金融部门的脆弱性。根据Goodhart 和 Hofmann(2007) ,住房和信贷市场的相辅相成繁荣 - 萧条周期可能会出现并有加强未来的金融脆弱性的可能性。因此,他们认为,住房价格和信贷从他们的长期趋势的偏差是未来银行业发展的有用指标。也就是说,货币政策制定者必
34、须了解资产市场在货币政策传导机制发挥的作用,以使用适当的政策工具。不过,房价和借贷之间的双向互动的强度以及因果关系的方向仍然是一个相对未知的问题。本文的目的是为房价和银行信贷之间的联系找到更多的经验证据。用 1975 年一季报数据至 2006 年来研究家庭借贷和住房价格在芬兰的长期关系,以及它们之间的短期动态关系。本文得出了几个对先前的实证文献的贡献。一个贡献在于在研究中使用的数据。采样周期比以前的相关研究更长,其次,模型将信贷分为住房贷款和消费贷款分别进行了推到。此外,本文将股票价格和信贷之间的相互依存关系与住房和信贷市场之间进行了比较。最后,检验了金融自由化对房价和信贷之间的相互作用的影响
35、。与 Goodhart 和 Hofmann(2007)基于一个更短的采样周期和有些不同的变量得出的结果相反,本文的实证分析表明,住房价格大幅同时影响住房贷款和消费贷款。反过来,住房贷款也对住房价格有显着影响。此外,我们发现,股票价格变动对家庭借贷的影响只是微弱的。 下一节将讨论住房价格与银行借贷之间的联系,并重温在这个问题上以往的经验证据。然后,概述了实证模型和在研究中使用的数据。在第四部分,根据计量结果分析得出研究结论。住房价格与家庭借贷之间的联系房价,就像任何资产的价格一样,都是由预期未来的现金流折现来确定的。信贷供应的增加可能会降低贷款利率,并刺激当前和未来的经济活动。因此,更多的信贷供
36、应可能降低贴现率并增加预期未来现金流量从而导致更高的房价。或许更重要的是,增加信贷供应可能会增加对住房的直接需求,如果家庭是举债约束,那么需求的增长将导致更高的房价。对房企进行信贷约束的重要性已被很多文献概括说明,如 Stein(1995) ,通过 Ortalo -Magne 和 Rady(2006)提出的生命周期模型,反过来提出年轻家庭面临的信贷约束对于住房价格的波动有重要影响。Ortalo -Magne 和 Rady(2006 )提供了支持其模型的实证证据。对房屋需求的信贷约束的重要性也有不少文献经验提出,如 Barakova 等人。此外,由 Jin和 Zeng(2004 )的一般均衡模型
37、提出,货币冲击因具有流动性约束对房价产生巨大的影响。此外,家庭债务可能揭示关于一些预计将推动房价上涨的变量信息。其一,借贷很可能反映家庭收入的不确定性,越不确定的家庭越不愿意借贷(预防性储蓄) 。此外,目前和预期的利率水平会影响家庭的借贷是合理的假设。因此,家庭借贷的变动能提供有关入息及加息预期以及对收入不确定性的信息。另一方面,住房价格变动会显著影响家庭借贷。Goodhart 和 Hofmann(2007)提出了房价影响家庭信贷需求的三个不同的渠道。首先,由于房屋的抵押价值一般较高,房价的上升会使银行放松住户所面对的借贷约束。 例如Iacoviello (2004) 讨论了增加住房财富通过抵
38、押品影响家庭的借贷能力。梁先生( 2004)提供了实证研究,确认房屋的抵押物价值的重要性的总结。但请注意,在芬兰类似于美国的抵押贷款资产取款是不常见的。预计这将在一定程度上削弱房屋升值对家庭借贷的影响。其次,改变房屋财富能使家庭对一生财富的认知显著作用,一生财富的增加感知会诱使家庭在今天消费更多,以平滑消费整个生命周期,从而增加信贷需求。第三,住房价格变动对信贷供应的影响必须通过所谓的资产负债表效应。房屋价格增长提高银行资本金从而增加银行放贷的可能性,并愿意提高发放贷款的价值。由 Goodhart 和Hofmann(2007 )提出,借贷和住房价格之间的双向因果关系可能产生相辅相成的信贷和住房
39、市场的周期。事实上,信贷周期已经在一些国家证实与房价周期吻合。此外,齐和杨发现在低迷的房地产市场条件下抵押亏损的严重程度要显著高于在正常的房地产市场的情况。Drake 等(2006)指出,住房市场显著影响香港银行体系的效率。同时股票价格可能与家庭借贷存在显著互动关系。这是由于股票和信贷市场之间的潜在相互作用类似于上文介绍的在住房市场的情况下的。股市和借贷之间的相互作用很可能不过是比住房和信贷的大幅减弱。首先,股票的抵押价值一般明显低于住房价值。其次,家庭的投资组合通常由住房为主。因此,房屋升值对家庭一生的财富感知观念的影响从而对现期消费和存款利率的影响会比对股市预期的影响要大。此外,信贷投放预
40、计将显著影响房屋的需求,因为债务通常占购买房子的资金的主要份额。特别是对于首次置业者来说。一般情况下,人们在持有股票的同时不会有显著的债务融资。尽管其潜在的重要性已被意识到,但对信贷和房地产市场之间的相互作用的实证研究仍然匮乏。一些实证研究支持信贷市场与房价因果关系的存在,而一些其他的研究发现,从房地产市场到信贷市场是一种单向因果关系。在早期的研究中,博里奥等(1994)发现,加入信贷与 GDP 的比率为资产定价公式提高了模型在大多数国家的吻合程度。据 Collyns 和 Senhadji(2002)信贷增长对香港、韩国、新加坡和泰国的住房价格有显著同期影响。根据梁和曹(2007)的分析,从银
41、行贷款到房价有单向因果关系,且因果关系通过协整长期关系,得出其中也包括国内生产总值与利率制定。分析的一个潜在问题是样品短期(1999Q1 - 2006Q2) 。据盖拉赫和彭(2005)的分析,相反,二者的短期和长期的因果关系是房价影响银行贷款,而不是倒过来,在香港。为了研究长期因果关系,盖拉赫和彭估计真正的银行贷款,实际国内生产总值和实际住房价格之间的协整长期关系。Hofmann(2004) ,Goodhart 和 Hofmann(2007)考察了除 1980-1999 年的季度数据外的银行贷款和房地产价格之间的关系。Hofmann 报告房地产价格与实际信贷之间的协整关系对私营部门,实际 GD
42、P 和实际利率在所有分析中纳入的 16 个发达国家(包括芬兰)的影响。在研究中使用的房屋销售价格指数为住房和商业地产的结合。Goodhart 和 Hofmann,使用一组 18 个工业化国家的数据,发现房价和银行贷款之间存在显著的双向因果关系。但发现在芬兰,贷款存量的冲击造成房价上涨的反应是微不足道的。此外,根据 Lamont 和 Stein (1999) ,房屋价格对那些家庭负债率较高的城市冲击反应更敏感。这表明,改变贷款与价值比率可能会影响住房价格动态特别是价格波动。在另一方面,Hort(1998)使用瑞典城市的面板数据发现,住户的净贷款与可支配收入的比例不会显著影响房屋价格。她把贷款与收
43、入比率作为外生变量。研究股价和信用之间的联系更是凤毛麟角。事实上,这似乎是很难找到一个以上的实证研究,考察股票市场和借款之间的互动关系。由 Goodhart 和 Hofmann(2007)的研究表明,房地产(包括住宅和商业)和信用之间的相互关系的比股票和信贷之间相互关系更符合之前的预期。总之,相关研究结果是混乱且稀少的。本文同时检验住房贷款和消费贷款在一个较长的采样周期的相互作用为以往的文献做出贡献。同时也考察了金融自由化对住房财富和信贷之间的动态影响。此外,比较了住房价格和信贷之间的相互作用与股票价格和信贷之间相互关系。2.房地产价格与银行稳定性研究摘要房地产价格会由于刚性供给、异质性以及各
44、种市场机制不完善而与他们的基本价值偏离。这对银行稳定性有两种截然不同的效果。较高的价格增加抵押和借款人的净财富的价值,从而降低信用违约的可能性。与此相反,与基本价值的持续性偏差可能会使银行寻求扩大其贷款组合而促进对风险更大的债权人的逆向选择,从而增加银行遇险的概率。我们用德国房地产市场和银行的独特数据来检验这些假设。 房价偏差造成银行不稳定,但名义房价的发展没有。这一发现证实了在评估银行的稳定性时,房地产价值偏差的重要性,而不单单是价格水平的变化。简介由于银行在抵押贷款方面的核心作用,以及房地产作为抵押物经常性,房地产市场的持续失衡可能会危及金融部门的稳健性(Goodhart 和 Hofman
45、n,2007) 。在过去,房地产价格的修正往往在金融危机之前发生,让决策者常常在各种指标中选择金融部门的脆弱性来评估资产价格(IMF ,2003) 。我们研究了房价对实际基本面的偏离是否以及如何影响到银行稳定性的问题。房地产市场与基本价值的频繁和持续的偏差是房地产金融的脆弱的重要原因。在一个无摩擦的世界里,房地产(就像任何其他资产)的价格是预期现金流量的贴现,而在这种情况下,房价就依赖于需求和供给。后者依赖于宏观经济基本面,如人口增长,实际收入或财富。那么,房价应该就反映经济周期(如 Herring 和 Wachter,1999;Higgins 和Osler,1999; Collyns 和 S
46、enhadji ,2002; Leamer ,2007 ) ,但这种关系很可能被减弱,主要有三个原因。首先,房地产是涉及到不同的质量、不同区域的非标准化的资产。其次,由于没有中央交易场所,则交易既缺乏透明度,又涉及高昂的交易成本,不完全信息和价格谈判。第三,住房市场供给的反应是缓慢的,这是由于建设滞后和有限的土地供应(McCarthy 和 Peach,2004 年) 。因此,相对于金融市场 ,长期均衡持续的偏差更容易发生在房地产市场。 (Herring 和 Wachter,1999).理论研究中承认银行业对于影响这种偏离起了至关重要的作用。所谓金融加速器机制包括房价对银行稳定性两种相互抵消的效
47、果(Kiyotaki 和 Moore,1997) 。房价上涨,增加了由银行拥有的房地产的价值以及质押借款的抵押品的价值,从而提升了银行资本。特别是,房地产价格升值阻碍了次级抵押贷款的借款人拖欠(Daglish,2009) 。因此,增加房地产价格会减少银行资产的风险度,并减少银行业财务困境的可能性(Niinimaki,2009) 。该抵押品的价值假说认为,越来越高的房地产价格提升了银行的稳定性,并预测了名义房价的变化和银行的违约概率(PD)之间的负相关关系。另外,房价飙升可能会由于道德风险和逆向选择问题而加剧银行风险的积累,(Bernanke 和 Gertler,1995; Allen 和 Ga
48、le ,2001)不断上涨的房价和房地产融资中的较低(预见)的风险可诱发以不合理的低利率过度放贷给房地产高风险的借款人。房价上涨还会鼓励风险最大的投资者押注房价远期上涨并积聚对风险资产的需求。这两个因素导致更大的风险和风险资产的积累,这将容易导致错误定价,转回基本面再增加银行系统财务困境的可能性。这种偏差假说认为,房价对其基本价值较大的偏离增加了银行的 PD。 本文用在德国 1995-2004 年的区域房地产价格和个别银行的详细数据考察了这两个相互对立的假设。在这样做时,我们寻求解决干扰以往研究房地产价格和银行体系的稳定之间的关系的实证工作的三个重要挑战:房地产业在整个跨国研究市场的可比性(如
49、,Hilbers 等,2001;Holly 等,2007)需要考虑到房价与其基本面的偏差,而不是仅仅专注于区域市场的价格水平(Calomiris 和 Mason, 2003;McCarthy 和 Peach, 2004; Ayuso 和 Restoy, 2006)以及危机条件下房地产的不平衡及银行系统所有金融机构中其他银行的具体特点(Harrison 和 Ragas, 1995;Haynes 和 Thompson, 1999; Guo, 1999; Gan, 2004) 。关于第一个挑战,总的研究使用房屋价格指标和其他宏观经济数据来预测危机(如 Kaminsky 和 Reinhart 1999) 。这种方法在很大程度上忽略了不动产资产在不同国家具有的异质性( BIS 和 IMF,2005) 。此外,对如房地产融资计划、税法、或房地产作为抵押品的监管差异的忽视,似乎充分体现在一般的国际房屋价格指数中。这往往是基于对几个观抽样国家的一些主要城市的观测(Davis 和 Zhu, 2005; Hilbers 等, 2008).。我们在考量房价的动态和偏离基本价值的情况时将房价的地区差异纳入,使用 125 个德国城市的房地产价格每年的信息。价格变化在德国由于不同地区经济发展和人口增长率的结构性差异而有所不同,他们对银行稳定性的可能有不同影响。其次,银行作为融资者的重要作用