1、从“非城非乡”到“优城美乡”FROM“NON-CITY&NON-COUNTRYSIDE”TO“REFINED CITY&BEAUTIFUL COUNTRYSIDE”朱介鸣ZHUJieming同济大学建筑与城市规划学院特聘教授、上海同济城市规划设计研究院有限公司总规划师、英国社会科学院院士Distinguished Professor of the College of Architecture and Urban Planning,Tongji University;Chief Planner of Shanghai Tongji Urban Planning&Design Institute
2、 Co.,Ltd.;Fellow of the British Academy of Social Sciences1“非城非乡”的现象“非城非乡”是城市化发展过程中普遍存在的一种现象，在不同国情下有不同的表述。在中国被称之为“城乡结合部”，是一个较为负面的词语，意味着此处的土地利用效率低、环境脏乱，既不是城、也不是乡。印度尼西亚称其为“村城”（d e s a k o t a）1，其空间面貌与中国的城乡结合部非常相似，城与乡高度混合。在美 国 则 体 现 为 郊 区 化（suburbanization），同 时，美 国 学 者 在研 究 城 市 化 过 程 中 也 创 造 了“peri-urb
3、anization”一 词 来 描 述 城市边缘区的非农建设用地发展。发展中国家城市化中“城乡结合部”的空间发展，以自下而上的乡村自发性非农用地开发为主，普遍缺乏用地开发控制。学 术 界 称 之 为“非 正 式 开 发”（informal development）。在 城市工业的辐射下，大城市近郊乡村的乡镇企业发展迅速，农民大多从事非农职业，“离土不离乡”，形成在地城市化（i n s i t u u r b a n i z a t i o n）的局面。“郊区化”的说法蕴含城市中产阶级的 生活方式，而“在地城市化”意味着一种农民自发的非农的生活方式。城市化都有从城市推向乡村的过程，城乡交接区往往
4、同时体现城市和乡村的特点。发达国家的城市化受土地规划制度管理，发展比较有序。发展中国家城市化进程常常出现“正式”与“非正式”的二元性。中国的城区建设受到规划局、建设局等政府职能部门的管理，城市建成区有正式的规划控制制度，而乡村地区则一般不具备此类制度，或者虽有一定的建设管理制度却未能发挥应有的作用，所以普遍存在自下而上的自发非农建设用地开 发。其特点表现为高密度的“城中村”、农地与建设用地高度混杂细碎化，非农建设用地低效且开发过度。这些现象是由乡村人口众多、土地相对稀缺的状况所致。图 1 中的不同颜色用地代表城市工业用地、城市居住用地、乡村工业用地和乡村居住用地，显示出城市和乡村在城乡结合部混
5、杂的土地开发情况1。引起乡村地区用地细碎化的主要原因是乡村集体所有制下土地产权的模糊。乡村集体由三级构成，即乡镇、行政村和自然村，拥有土地的集体主体相互之间的份额未能明确定义，且集体土地产权也不完整，开发权和出让权均不属于集体。城中村之所以成为贫民窟式的居住环境，与其不清晰的开发权有很大关联。在城市化发展过程中，传统的“乡规民约”式村庄管理方式已经失效，而城市的开发控制制度却没有到位。乡村非农建设用地发展成为没有任何管制的“公地”2，造成“地租耗散”3，稀缺的土地资源未能得到有效利用。笔者曾在广东某地农村观察到这样一种现象。2 0 0 0 年，一个村庄早期除了工业用地和居住用地外，还有不少农地
6、，呈现一派田园景象，而在 10 年后，大部分农田都变成了工业用地。为什么村民要将自已美好的家园变成污染严重、环境嘈杂的工业区？从土地产权角度理解，其原因是城市近郊的农业用地随时都面临着被政府征收的可能，且征收赔偿价格较低，田园风光的农地没有保障4。与其被政府低价征用，还不如先下手为强，建设成工业用地后出租至少能提高村庄集体经济收入。近郊地区乡村自下而上的非农发展导致农地与建设用地的高度混杂细碎化。城市的行政管理制度由市 区 街道构成，街道是社会管理机构，不参与城市建设的规划和实施的决策。乡村的 三级管理结构为乡镇 行政村 自然村，农业和非农发展以村（行政村或自然村）为自主管理基本单元，而非以镇
7、或县为单元进行规划建设开发。村委会和村民是发展的主要决策者之一，发展项11 2022.12 建筑实践 ArchitecturalPractice目只能落在村界范围之内的土地（宅基地、家庭承包耕地和非农建设用地）之上。以村为基本单元进行自主发展导致的不利现象之一就是细碎的农业和非农用地混杂。这个用地结构显然不利于农业发展，也不利于工业发展和居住生活。因为农业种植、工业生产和城市生活都需要有各自的基础设施，这样一来，基础配套设施被分割，农业、工业、居住发展的水平必然低下（图 2）。早期的规划措施是在镇域范围内实施“三集中”政策，即农业用地集中、工业用地集中、居住用地集中，做法简单、直截了当，似乎能
8、解决各种用地细碎混杂的发展问题。但是，措施的提 出也反映了城市规划师对乡村社会经济发展管理制度的无知。土地利用格局的现状充分体现村的利益，“三集中”却是根据城市管理制度特点提出的规划措施，完全忽略乡村基本单元的存在。所以这个规划策略难以施行。2“优城美乡”的塑造城乡结合部存在“非城非乡”这一严重问题，但也不是没有优势。那里的空间要素丰富，有城有乡，还有村和镇。如果这些空间要素（城、镇、乡、村）能够得到合理规划，成为相互关联、边界清晰的整体，“非城非乡”也可成为“优城美乡”。因为人均农地指标低下，耕地高度稀缺背景下的小农经济模式首先造成农地细碎化（图 3），所以乡村地区无法自然而然地形成整齐美观
9、的乡村风貌。乡村土地发展细碎化说明乡村土地具有多元的利益相关方。因为农地和建设用地是村集体和全体村民所有，自下而上、自治乡村发展的建设项目必须利用本村的土地，以村为基本单元是乡村发展的基本特点，完全不同于高度集中、注重整体性的城市发展模式。塑造“优城美乡”，首先需要整合乡村的土地利益，通过农地流转和乡村建设用地转让的手段，推动农地和建设用地集中的整体性发展。城市近郊大部分农民已经脱离农业生产，从事非农工作。家庭承包耕地可以通过农地流转，将细碎化小农耕作转变成为规模化农场生产，形成万顷良田的美丽农村风光（图 4）。如果村民已经不从事农业耕种，可以相对集中居住，村宅建设用地可以转移到城区，建设用地
10、指标转让收入可为村民移居镇区或城区提供住房资金（图 5），乡村仅保留若干品质优良的村庄。其次要努力提高城乡边界处的城区质量，城区应该充分体现城市空间美学和魅力，打造宜人的道路尺度，创造有利于城乡生活的小街区、精致的道路和建筑空间（图 6）。1 广东某市城乡结合部的土地开发 Land development in the urban-rural continuum of a city in Guangdong建筑评论 Architectural Review 12上海浦东地区的浦江镇目前是一个典型的城乡结合部地区。城区空间尺度粗放、环境空旷、道路宽阔、城市质感粗糙，与之紧邻的农村地区风貌衰败简陋
11、。该镇拟通过城市设计竞赛促进优化城镇乡村空间布局，提升城乡环境品质。其城市设计应当重点梳理城乡空间，充分利用在镇区落户的上海戏剧学院分校的优势，提升城区品质，为戏剧学院的学生提供优雅的城市场所，以期充满艺术气息的学生能为城乡空间发展做出贡献。原属浦江镇的华侨城规划 3 0 0 m 见方的居住小区街区，这个尺度既能保证小区 内安静的活动空间，保障老人儿童活动的安全性，又能提高城市道路密度、降低道路宽度，创造合适的道路空间尺度，避免了新城普遍存在的大街区、城市道路密度低导致道路过宽的景象。浦江镇还有 2 个历史镇街，其中召稼楼老街很受市民青睐，游人络绎不绝，已经成为城郊生活的重要组成部分。除此之外
12、，还应当优化城区与乡村之间的交通网络，建设便捷的公共交通，加强城乡交通运输的互动，促进城乡经济的融合发展。在镇域内提供步道和自行车道，可以提高城乡场所的可达性，让人们享受到城、镇、乡、村不同内涵的空间。3 国土空间规划制度下的城乡未来城市化进程中，土地成为稀缺资源，城市和乡村之间的土地利用应该平衡合理。要提高土地利用效率，减少乡村过度开发，保护乡村土地的生态和景观特色。在推动乡村地区村庄和人口布局重构的过程中，相当比例的村民已经离开农村，在城市居住就业，那么仍在农村居住的村民住宅可以相对集中，与社会生活服务设施配置耦合，以此提高村民居住水平。村庄的集中将带来农地的集中，以此为契机，使乡村风貌得
13、到改善。国土空间规划是实现“优城美乡”必不可少的措施。国土空间规划通过设置刚性的“三线”，即耕地和永久基本农田保护红 线、生态保护红线和城镇开发边界线，对城乡空间融合发展进行管控。以“山水林田湖草一体化保护和系统治理”的理念推动全域土地综合整治、乡村生态保护修复，达到农田整治、河道治理、村庄提升的目标。国土空间规划实施层面的建设用地利用效率与公平至关重 要2。土地资源高度稀缺，提高土地利用的经济效率理所应当，然而土地资产分配的社会公平对于追求共同富裕必不可少，因此，基于市场效率与社会公平，在城镇化过程中必须建立建设用地增量分配和存量规划制度，以此推动国土空间规划指导下的可持续城乡融合发展。随着
14、城市化非农经济的发展，村民逐渐向开发边界内集中，乡村破碎化问题有望得到治理，城区的肌理也能得到有效改善。城、镇、乡、村 4 种空间要素构成的“优城美乡”指日可待。（本文图片由作者提供）2 乡村自主的土地利用与开发示意图（图片来源：作者自绘）Schematic diagram of independent land use and development in rural areas(Image source:Self-drawn by the author)建设用地 Construction land农业用地 Agricultural land13 2022.12 建筑实践 Architect
15、uralPractice3 土地细碎的乡村风貌 The rural feature of land fragmentation 朱介鸣 ZHU Jieming 1 The Phenomenon of“Non-City&Non-Countryside”“Non-city&non-countryside”is a common phenomenon during the process of urbanization development,which has different expressions under different national conditions.It is calle
16、d“rural-urban continuum”in China,which is a relatively negative word,and means that it has low land use efficiency and dirty environment here,and it is neither a city nor a countryside.Indonesia calls it as“desakota”1,and its spatial appearance is very similar to the rural-urban continuum in China,w
17、here cities and countrysides are highly mixed.In the United States,it is manifested as subur-banization.Meanwhile,American scholars also created the term“peri-urbanization”to describe the development of non-agricultural construction land in the urban fringe during the study of urbanization.In the ur
18、banization of developing countries,the spatial development of“rural-urban continuum”is mainly based on spontaneous non-agricultural land development in rural areas from bottom to top,and there is a general lack of land development control.It is called“informal development”by academics.Under the radi
19、ation of urban industry,township enterprises in the suburbs of big cities have developed rapidly.Most of the farmers are engaged in non-agricultural occupations,“departing farming without leaving native land”,forming a situation of in situ urbanization.The term“suburbanization”contains the lifestyle
20、 of urban middle classes,while“in situ urbanization”means a spontaneous non-agricultural lifestyle of farmers.Urbanization has a process from the city to the coun-tryside,and the rural-urban continuum often embodies the features of both the city and the countryside.Urbanization in developed countrie
21、s is under the management of land planning system,and develops in an relatively orderly manner.The process of urbanization in developing countries often has the duality of“formality”and“informality”.Urban construction in China is under the management of functional government departments such as the
22、Planning Bureau and the Construction Bureau.There is a formal planning control system in urban built-up areas,but generally there is no such system in rural areas,or although there is a certain construction management system,it fails to play its due role,so there is ubiquitous spontaneous developmen
23、t of non-ag-ricultural construction land from bottom to up.Its features are as follows:“villages within the cities”are high-density,agricultural land and construction land are highly-mixed and fragmented,and non-agricultural construction land is ineffi-cient and overdeveloped.These phenomena are cau
24、sed by the large rural population and the relative scarce land.The land with different colors in Fig.1 represents urban industrial land,urban residential land,rural industrial land and rural residential land,which shows the mixed land development of urban and rural areas in the rural-urban continuum
25、1.The main reason for the land fragmentation in rural areas is the ambiguity of land property rights under rural collective ownership.The rural collective is composed of three levels,namely,towns,administrative villages and natural villages.The share of collective subjects who own land is not explic
26、itly defined,and the property right of collective land is incomplete,and neither the development right nor the transfer right belongs to the collective.The reason why the villages within the cities has become a slum-like living environment is closely related to its indistinct development rights.Duri
27、ng the process of urbanization,the traditional village management mode of“local rules and regulations valid for the whole village”has failed,while the urban development control system has not been put in place.The non-agricultural construction land in rural areas has developed into a“common land”2 w
28、ithout any regula-tions,resulting in“land rent dissipation”3,and scarce land resources have not been used effectively.The author once observed such a phenomenon in a rural area in Guangdong.In 2000,in addition to industrial land and residential land,a village had a lot of agricultural land in its ea
29、rly stage,presenting an idyllic scenery.However,10 years later,most of the farmland became industrial land.Why do villagers want to turn their beautiful homes into industrial areas with severe pollution and noisy environment?From the perspective of land property rights,the reason is that the agricul
30、tural land in the suburbs of the city is likely to be expropriated by the government at any time,and the compensation price for expropriation is low,and the agri-cultural land with idyllic scenery is not guaranteed4.Rather than being expropriated by the government at a low price,it is better to take
31、 the initiative first.After being built into industrial land,renting can at least increase the collective economic income of the village.The non-agricultural development of rural areas in the suburbs from bottom to up has caused a highly-mixed and fragmented agricultural land and construction land.T
32、he administrative management system of cities consists of city district residential district.The residential district is a social management organization,and does not participate in the decision-making of urban construction planning and implementation.The three-level management structure of villages
33、 is town administrative village natural village,and agricultural and non-agricultural development takes villages(administrative villages or natural villages)as the 建筑评论 Architectural Review 14elementary unit of independent management,rather than towns or counties as the unit for planning,constructio
34、n and development.The village committee and villagers are one of the main decision makers of development,and the development projects can only fall on the land(homestead,household-contracted cultivated land and non-agricultural construction land)within the village boundary.One of the adverse phenome
35、na caused by the independent develop-ment with villages as the elementary unit is the mixture of fragmented agricultural and non-agricultural land.The land use structure is obviously not conducive to agricultural development,industrial development and living life.Because agricultural planting,indust
36、rial production and urban life all need their own infrastructure,in this way,the infrastructure is divided,and the level of agricultural,industrial and resi-dential development is bound to be low(Fig.2).The early planning measures were to implement the policy of“three concentrations”within the town,
37、that is,agricultural land concentration,industrial land concentration and residential land concentration.The approach is simple and straightforward,which seems to solve the development problems of various fragmented and mixed land.However,the proposed measures also reflect the ignorance of urban pla
38、nners on the management system of rural social and economic development.The current land use pattern fully reflects the benefits of the village,but“three concentrations”are the planning measures according to the characteristics of urban management system,which completely ignores the existence of ele
39、mentary units in rural areas.Therefore,the planning strategy is difficult to implement.2 Shaping of“Refined City&Beautiful Countryside”There is a severe problem of“non-city&non-countryside”in the urban-rural continuum,but it also has its own advan-tages.There are rich spatial elements,including citi
40、es and countrysides,as well as villages and towns.If these spatial elements(cities,towns,countrysides and villages)can be rationally planned and become an interconnected whole with distinct boundaries,“non-city&non-countryside”can also become“refined city&beautiful countryside”.The small-scale peasa
41、nt economy model under the background of low per capita agricultural land indicators and highly-scarce cultivated land first causes the fragmen-tation of agricultural land(Fig.3),so we can not naturally obtain a neat and beautiful rural scenery.The fragmentation of land development in rural areas sh
42、ows that rural land has diversified interested parties.Because agricultural land and construction land are owned by the village collective and all villagers,the construction projects of bottom-up and auton-omous rural development must use the land of the village.Taking the village as the elementary
43、unit is the fundamental feature of rural development,which is completely different from the highly centralized and holistic urban development model.In order to create an“refined city&beautiful country-side”,firstly,we need to integrate the interests of rural land,and promote the integrated developme
44、nt of agricultural land and construction land concentration by means of agricultural land transfer and rural construction land transfer.Most of the farmers in the suburbs of the city have been separated themselves from agricultural production and engaged in non-agricultural employment.The house-hold
45、-contracted cultivated land can transform fragmented small-scale farming into large-scale farm production through agricultural land transfer,forming a beautiful rural scenery of million hectares of fertile farmland(Fig.4).If villagers are no longer engaged in agricultural farming,they can live in a
46、relatively concentrated areas,and the construction land for village houses can be transferred to urban areas.The income from the transfer of construction land indicators can provide housing funds for villagers to move to towns or urban areas(Fig.5),and only a few villages with good quality are re-se
47、rved in rural areas.Secondly,we should strive to enhance the quality of urban areas at the urban-rural continuum.Urban areas should fully reflect the aesthetics and charm of urban space,create pleasant road scales,and create small streets,exquisite roads and architectural spaces that are conducive t
48、o urban and rural life(Fig.6).Pujiang Town in Pudong New Area,Shanghai is cur-rently a typical urban-rural continuum.The urban area has extensive spatial scale,open environment,wide roads and rough urban texture,and the rural area adjacent to it has decaying and crude scenery.The town plans to promo
49、te the optimization of urban and rural spatial layout and enhance the quality of urban and rural environment through urban design competition.Its urban design should focus on comb-ing the urban and rural space,make full use of the advantag-es of the branch of Shanghai Theatre Academy,which has settl
50、ed in the town,enhance the quality of the urban area,and provide the students of the Shanghai Theatre Academy with elegant urban places,so that the students full of artistic atmosphere can make contributions to the urban and rural 4 可进行规模化农业生产的万顷良田 Million hectares of fertile farmland for large-scal
