1、Kluchhohns dimensions,Two American anthropologist s Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck made a very important study of values. They studied the five communities which were within fifty miles of each other. (first in 1936 then in 1951) They identified five orientations, five categories of beliefs
2、and behaviours that are universal. This means that all cultures have to work out solutions to these issues.,five dimensions,1. human nature orientation, 2. human-nature orientation, 3. time-orientation, 4. activity orientation, and 5. relational orientation.The Figure,Human nature,The first: evil bu
3、t perfectible. The second: mixture of good and evil. And the third: good but corruptible. Shame culture and guilt culture,human nature,The first: evil but perfectible. The traditional Western belief about human nature is that humans are basically evil. We see this in the Bible story of Adam and Eve.
4、 God throws them out of the Garden of Eden because they ate the fruit from the Tree of Knowledge. Since then, according to Christian teaching, all human beings have have been born with original sin. That means they do evil as part of their nature and can only be saved from evil by God. (Perfect huma
5、n nature by keeping doing good things.) (more),As a result of the rise of humanism in the West, the basic belief has changed to one of seeing humans as a mixture of good and evil. The traditional view has also been incorporated into Western institutions in various ways. The distrust of human nature
6、can be seen in American political institutions with their checks and balances. This view also shows up in modern theories that seem to have nothing to do with religious beliefs. The psychological theories of Sigmund Freud include the idea that infants are controlled by primitive desires (evil) and l
7、earn to control them (become good) as their personality develops.,The third: good but corruptible. This is what we Chinese believe. Children are believed to be pure and innocent but may become corrupt as they grow older and have more contact with society. We are all familiar with the story of Menciu
8、s mother moving three times in order to be close to a good neighborhood. (Originally good, but if not careful about what people surrounding, then you might really become corrupted. Think of what Hanfeitze said about this.) Shame culture and guilt culture,hanfeitze,A philosopher of the “legalist scho
9、ol”, lived about three centuries after Confucius.He maintains that we should not expect people to be good, but we should make it impossible for them to be bad.,Shame culture and guilt culture (human nature),In guilt cultures, the person is expected to feel guilty if he/she does or even thinks someth
10、ing wrong, whether or not anyone knows about it. In shame cultures, the good is an ideal everyone hopes to realize but may not be possible to achieve in every situation. What is important is that you meet your obligation to be a model of virtue for a particular group of people to whom you have such
11、a responsibility. In Confucian cultures people are encouraged to be good and are likely to feel shamed if they fail to live up to others expectations that they be virtuous. If China has what some experts call a shame culture, then the West is dominated by guilt cultures. How is it related with time
12、orientation (past or future) ?基督教的原罪说让人忏悔，不断地忏悔，造就了西方人灵动的心灵。人处于神与魔、灵与肉的冲突中，不能安静；人又必须超越现世，驰奔向天国，也不能安于现状。另外，既人类始祖犯了“原罪”，人就不能向后退，对祖先也不可能有好感。儒家的性本善则让人“反身而诚”，安于现状，安分守己，故中国人有静态的心灵。同时性本善也导致祖宗崇拜。罪感文化 vs 耻感文化 / 乐感文化 / 善感文化,Relationship to nature,First: subjugation to nature. Second: harmony with nature. Thir
13、d: Mastery over nature. Extension of the value “human-nature” to human relationships,First: subjugation to nature.,If you have this type of orientation, you believe that basically human beings are powerless. Human beings are at the mercy of nature. Native Americans basically adopt this kind of orien
14、tation.,Second: harmony with nature.,We Chinese believe that man should be in harmony with nature.Examples: Chinese medicine, houses, proverbs, etc. Chinese gardens and houses reveal Chinese social attitudes towards the relationship between humans and nature. Pavilion s, paved pathways, and other st
15、ructures are integrated with natural features of water, trees and rock. There is no sharp distinction between being inside a building and being outside in nature. you go inside to enjoy the building. In the West, buildings tend to dominate their surroundings and interiors and exteriors are distinct
16、spaces. Nature is outside of human society. (skyscrapers, monuments, etc. look from afar),Third: Mastery over nature.,In industrialized societies, people tend to believe that nature should be made to serve mankind. You can take whatever you like from nature. Bible story: Adam and Eve This view (man
17、being separated from nature) can be seen from the Bible story of creation. Adam is given dominance over all of Gods creation. Adam and his human descendents stand apart from and above nature and are told to use the natural world to meet human needs. This used to be the prevalent view in western soci
18、eties. But today more and more people come to believe that this is not the right attitude. We should protect the environment instead of exploiting nature. (eg. Green organizations),Extension of this value to human engineering,If your culture teaches integration with nature, harmony and balance, then
19、 ?you are likely to seek harmony and balance in social relationships as well. If you are in awe of nature and feel helpless in face of its power, then ?you might also feel powerless in other areas of your life. If you think you are separate from nature and can control it, then ? you probably think y
20、ou are separate from others and can use scientific methods to control people and events.,human engineering,This is true in the West where technology extends to the human world in the form of human engineering. The scientific study of human motivation and the invention of technology to control it are
21、 the basis of professional practice in fields such as advertising, psychology, education, sociology, public relations and management.,time orientation,past-oriented present-orientedfuture-orientedLinear time and cyclical time,past-oriented,Those who are past-oriented tend to believe tradition is imp
22、ortant. To them, the cultural memory is rich and deep. They like to look back to a period when their culture was at the height of its power and glory and may quote respected philosophers and leaders from the past as a guide for action in the present. And they may feel more secure when something new
23、is defined as similar to something that occurred in the past. For instance, if a new policy is introduced, it may be given the authority of the past by comparing it to a historical event or by supporting it with a quotation from a respected leader of the past.,Present-oriented.,People with this orie
24、ntation enjoy what they have. Hispanics are believed to be people who are present-oriented. They should enjoy whatever they have while they live. This is what we say in Chinese: 及时行乐.,Future-oriented,If you tend to look to the future and make plans for the future, youre future-oriented. In those cul
25、tures overcoming the limitations of the past or surpassing the accomplishments of the past are good reasons for doing something new. People there often have a strong belief in progress. But people may have negative expectations for the future and their efforts may be directed at preparing for or pre
26、venting bad times ahead.,(Back) Whatever the future is seen as probably good or bad, time is seen as a straight line that leads from the past and is swiftly moving into the future. (linear time) It moves in only one direction, from the past to the future. In present and past-oriented societies peopl
27、e are more likely to experience time as a cycle, as repeating itself according to some pattern. Maybe the Chinese used to be past-oriented. (look back, quote) But today, maybe more and more Chinese are future-oriented. They have great plans for the future. Still there are scholars who dont agree.,ac
28、tivity orientation,Different cultures have different activity orientations. Look at the following questions:1. What do you do? Who are you?2. What does your father do? being-orientedbeing-in-becoming-orienteddoing-oriented,being-oriented,In this type of culture, people are satisfied with what they h
29、ave, and family background is more important than what they accomplish. Their actions express who they are. For that reason people behave in ways appropriate to their positions (status, social roles, and character) in life.,being-in-becoming.,Its a spiritual goal of inner harmony and peace. Its some
30、where in between being and doing. The stress is the development of the self, whatever the self is understood to be in a particular culture. In India the social attitude is widely accepted that there are different ways of life and different virtues for people at various stages of life. (before marria
31、ge, certain virtues. When married, worldly success, family obligations. After middle life, detached from worldly life and become more spiritual. ) In South Asia, this orientation exists side by side with doing and being ones, and to a lesser extent in other cultures.,doing orientation,This activity
32、leads to external accomplishments. The goal is to achieve as much as possible (more dynamic). It means you want to do things and to achieve success. So you tend to be more active. Because the stress is on action in doing culture, the goals toward which action is directed are also emphasized. And the
33、re is often a sense of urgency about getting things done. Deadlines are important, as is the schedule. To have a full schedule indicates that you are accomplishing things. (example)Doing culture people often talk a lot and may not be especially physically active. Why? They may tell you when they are
34、 talking, they are planning, problem-solving, gathering information or making decisions. These are important concepts for them because these are the mental activities that lead to action or are the equivalent of action.,Martha, an American high school student, went to Indonesia as part of a student
35、exchange program. She was excited. The first few days were filled with meeting her new Indonesian exchange family, trying new foods, walking around the neighborhood, and getting to know her Indonesian exchange sister, Ketty. Exciting. But about her second week, Martha began to feel as if something w
36、as wrong.One morning, she asked Ketty, So, what are the plans for today? What are we going to do?Ketty replied, Oh, I didnt really make any plans. My mother might want us to go shopping with her later. Then well see what we feel like doing. Maybe we could go downtown.,What time is your mom going sho
37、pping?Oh, whenever shes ready. Are you getting bored? Maybe we should sign up for one of those guided tours of the city. Oh, no, I dont want to be a tourist. I want to do just what you do. I guess Im just used to being busy all the time. Its hard for me to get used to not having plans, Doesnt it bot
38、her you to rush around so much? asked Ketty.No, I love it when Im busy. Sitting around wasting time makes me nervous. Lets go do something, Ketty. Im only here for two months, after all. I dont want to leave Indonesia feeling that I havent experienced as much as I can. Martha looked down at her watc
39、h again and said, Goodness, its almost 11 and all weve done is sit around talking!,Social relationships,Hierarchy(authoritarianism) Group (collectivism) Individual,Hierarchy,The society as a whole consists of a series of hierarchies. A person who is at the top of one hierarchy may be at the bottom o
40、f another hierarchy that is above it. These people are aware of their positions (clearly defined privileges and obligations) in relation to others.Hierarchical societies differ from one another depending on the criteria used to assign a person a place in the hierarchy. some groups are permanently on
41、 the bottom and others permanently on the top.(The criteria may be based on race, ethnic group, or inheritance from ones parents),Group,In societies where relationships are based on groups, each persons social identity comes from their group memberships. People feel dependent on the group, safe with
42、in it, proud, and competitive with other groups. (in-groupsyour family, relatives, friends and out-groupsstrangers) Loyalty is important in group-oriented cultures. In this pattern the group act out of concern for all its members and make decisions by consensus, and members are loyal to the group.,I
43、ndividual,In individualistic societies, social relations are based on the autonomy of each person. There are many hierarchies in individualist cultures (the US and others), but people are uncomfortable with them and try to reduces their impact. (use of first names; high-ranking people send messages
44、that they are just like everyone else.)People tend to be less aware of others feelings and may talk more than people from group-oriented cultures. Self-reliance and independence are important and it is considered weak to be dependent on others. (care of elderly parents) Personal initiative is highly
45、 valued. People learn to express their individual desires and make individual choices when very young.,Send elderly parents to a nursing home.,Linell Davis:Americans do care for the elderly parents as well as Chinese do, but they have to do it in a way that does not interfere with the autonomy and i
46、ndependence of the older person.,Collateral relationship, collateral means connected. You tend to think about your group, in-groups. (your relatives, your friends, people that you know) This is group-oriented. And then lineal relationship. This is thinking in terms of time. That is, you have a historical time. And finally the third type is individualistic relationship. This stresses individual goals. Self is more important than the group. In other words, it is individualism.,Comparing values across cultures,
