1、呼吸衰竭的病理生理基础,呼吸衰竭的定义和诊断标准,呼吸衰竭是指不能维持正常的组织氧运输或组织二氧化碳排出的病理状态Campbell诊断标准:即当健康人在海平面呼吸室内空气时,PaCO2高于50mmHg和/或PaO2低于60 mmHg结合病史和临床状态综合判断,呼吸衰竭的分类,急性呼吸衰竭和慢性呼吸衰竭低氧性(型)和高碳酸血症性(型)需进一步分清导致低氧和二氧化碳潴留的各种原因呼吸泵(通气功能)衰竭和肺(换气功能)衰竭,通气/血流比例失调肺内分流肺泡低通气FiO2降低弥散障碍和弥散/灌注障碍CaO2=(Hb 1.34 SaO2)+(0.003 PaO2)DO2=CO CaO2 10,低氧血症的机
2、制和病理生理,缺氧的危害大于二氧化碳潴留!,各种导致型呼衰的病因和胸部影像学改变 胸部无阴影 弥漫性病变 肺叶病变 单侧肺病变心内分流 支气管肺炎 肺梗塞 吸入肺血管分流 肺出血 大叶肺炎 胸腔积液动-静脉畸形 ARDS 肺叶阻塞 大的肺梗塞肝硬化 静水力学肺水肿 肺不张 气管插管进入一侧哮喘、COPD 吸入损伤 黏液栓肺栓塞 间质性肺炎 肺挫伤气胸 复张性肺水肿头外伤 对侧气胸混合静脉血氧合不良 肺炎肥胖/气道阻塞 侧卧位/肺水肿,通气衰竭的机制和病理生理,呼吸驱动降低药物过量、卒中呼吸肌疲劳或衰竭肺过度充气呼吸肌结构和功能改变呼吸肌力学改变代谢因素(低钾、低磷)神经-肌肉疾病(ALS、GB
3、s、重症肌无力等)周围神经疾病和胸廓疾病呼吸功增加,急性高碳酸血症性呼吸衰竭,主要特征为PaCO2增高,通气衰竭时往往伴有低氧血症PaCO2与肺泡通气(VA)成反比,肺泡通气降低一半,PaCO2则升高一倍 PaCO2=VCO2/VA(1-VD/VT),VA与PA CO2 曲线,引起高碳酸血症性呼衰的常见病因通气驱动降低 呼吸肌疲劳或衰竭 呼吸功增加 药物过量 格林-巴力综合征 COPD 睡眠呼吸暂停 肌萎缩性侧索硬化症 哮 喘 重症肌无力、 肥胖 甲状腺功能低下 酸性麦芽糖酶缺乏 气胸 代谢性碱中毒 膈神经损伤 严重烧伤 原发性肺泡低通气 肉毒中毒 脊柱后侧凸 脑炎 多发性肌炎 上呼吸道阻塞
4、系统性红斑狼疮 胸腔积液 脊髓损伤 感染 低钾、低磷、低镁 强直性脊柱炎,高碳酸血症对机体的影响和临床表现 系统或器官 作用 临床表现呼吸系统 兴奋呼吸中枢 通气增加 、低氧血症 氧离曲线右移 呼吸肌疲劳征象 影响膈肌功能 肺血管收缩、通气/血流失调 降低肺泡PaO2神经系统 脑血管扩张、脑血流量增加 头痛、颅内压增高 神志抑制或兴奋 嗜睡、昏迷或躁动抽搐 刺激交感神经、肾上腺分泌循环系统 心肌收缩力下降 心率增加、血压增高 血管阻力降低 心律失常肾脏 重吸收HCO3-增多 低氯、高钾、少尿 肾血流量减少,例1 肺切除术后,PH7.363, PaCO291mmHg, PaO242.1mmHg,
5、肺结核导致的呼吸衰竭,%FVC47%,%FEV152%,FEV1%110%,%VC48%,正常人,限制性通气功能障碍,正常人,大气道阻塞隆突癌,男,54岁,胸闷、憋气,伴咯血1月余入院PH7.456,PaCO258mmHg,PaO274.6mmHg,仔细询问病史和体检(注意口咽部、辅助呼吸肌、胸廓形态等)动脉血气分析实验室检查(血象、电解质特别是镁和磷、甲状腺功能)肺功能试验(肺容积、FEV1、呼吸肌肌力等)选择性检查 夜间多导睡眠监测仪 跨膈压测定 注意误诊和漏诊问题!,慢性呼吸衰竭诊断应注意的几个问题,积极治疗的重要性,气道阻力增加肺动态过度充气产生PEEPi缓解期 2.41.6cmH2O
6、急性加重期 6.5 1.5cmH2O克服PEEPi所用呼吸功占总呼吸功43%5%静态顺应性上升,动态顺应性下降肺泡气分布不均通气/血流比例失调呼吸肌疲劳FRC ,RV/TLC67%,肺气肿VD/VT , VA ,PA CO2 ,COPD的呼吸力学特征,COPD呼吸衰竭的最新认识,严重通气/血流比例失调以及生理死腔量的相对增大是COPD呼吸衰竭的主要机制肺过度充气、膈肌低平、呼吸肌疲劳、浅快呼吸、死腔量相对增大43%的COPD呼吸衰竭患者存在夜间低通气(SH)SH与基础动脉血二氧化碳分压、BMI、上气道阻塞指标密切相关临床治疗的目标:减轻肺过度充气、改善呼吸肌疲劳、增加肺泡通气量,动态肺过度充气
7、(DHI)更加严重DHI FRC 、Vei (吸气末陷闭气量)急性加重期 PEEPi平均高达 9-19cmH2O机械通气能够加重DHI,危重哮喘呼吸力学特征,DHI VD/VT 、VA、PaCO2 、PaO2 DHI Pplat 、PEEPi (血流动力学 、 容积气压伤),重症哮喘MV治疗中的问题,NIPPV的应用地位气管插管的时机问题上机之初的通气模式和参数的设定问题其他辅助措施的应用问题撤机困难问题哮喘死亡问题(DHI?),ALI/ARDS病理生理特点,肺水肿、肺不张、肺实变FRC,TLC ,Raw不高(?),CL VA/QA失调,DLCO ,QS/QT PaO2 , SaO2 , VT
8、 , f , PaCO2 , pH ,各种肺病压力容积曲线特点,呼吸衰竭的治疗要点,病因治疗一般支持疗法保持气道通畅改善通气氧疗LTOT机械通气治疗NIPPV,LTOT,LTOT是指每日吸氧时间至少大于15小时,至少持续6个月以上的氧疗方法LTOT的主要目标是解决低氧血症(特别是夜间睡眠时的低氧血症),使患者的SaO2维持在90%,而PaCO2上升不超过10mmHg。,LTOT处方时掌握的指征,经积极药物治疗患者病情稳定后如PaO255mmHg或SaO288%如PaO2在55-59mmHg之间,但有明显组织缺氧表现如合并肺动脉高压或有肺心病、继发高血红蛋白血症、运动时发生严重低氧血症或运动受到
9、缺氧的限制明显的认知功能障碍等情况时也是LTOT的适应症。,呼吸衰竭的治疗进展,人工呼吸支持技术的进展呼吸力学指导下的保护性肺通气策略非常规呼吸支持技术的发展无创正压通气技术的发展呼吸监护技术的发展新的机械通气模式和策略呼吸衰竭病理生理机制的研究进展ARDS呼吸发生和调控睡眠相关呼吸疾病,Thank you !,Blood Gas Interpretation,Zhang BoPulmonary Dept.of Airforce General Hospital,Contents,Indices and Normal ValuesFour important equationsAcid-Bas
10、e imbalanceCases interpretation,Normal Arterial Blood Gas Values,PH 7.35-7.45PaCO2 35-45mmHgPaO2 70mmHg(age dependent)%MetHb 1%COHb 2.5%BE -2.0 to 2.0mEq/LCaO2 16-22 ml O2/dl,Age and PaO2,Age PaO245 hypercapina hypoventilation35-45 eucapnia normal ventilation35 hypocapnia hyperventilation,(2) PaCO2
11、and Alveolar Ventilation,Dead Space VA=(VE-VD) f VD=VDphysio+Vdanato VE (CNS , Muscle diseases)PaCO2 VD (COPD,Lung fibrosis) VE +VD (COPD),(3) PaCO2 and Alveolar Ventilation,PetCO2 PetCO2 indicates the PaCO2 trend For healthy, PACO2= PetCO2=PaCO2 For severe lung disease,VD increase, PACO2= PetCO2=Pa
12、CO2 PetCO2PACO2 (PaCO2- PetCO2) reflects VD,(4)PaCO2 and Alveolar Ventilation,PaCO2 inversely correlates PAO2PaCO2 inversely correlates PH PaCO2 is the only indices to reflect oxygenation,ventilation and acid-base state,(1)PaO2, PAO2 and the alveolar gas equation,Equations PaO2 is different from PAO
13、2 PAO2=PIO2-1.25 PaCO2 PIO2=(PB-47) FIO2 P(A-a)=PAO2-PaO2 (NR 5-15 mmHg) (old people 15-25mmHg) without knowledge of PAO2 one cannot properly interpret any PaO2 value,(2) PaO2, PAO2 and the alveolar gas equation,Causes of low PaO2 and elevated P(A-a)O2 Causes of low PaO2 P(A-a)O2 V/Q imbalance Incre
14、ased Diffusion impairment Increased Pulmonary shunt Increased Cardiac R to L shunt Increased Decreased PIO2 Normal Hypoventilation Normal,PaO2, PAO2 and the alveolar gas equation,Case 1:女性,27岁,因胸痛急诊就诊,有口服避孕药史,胸片及查体均阴性。动脉血气示 PH7.45 PaCO231mmHg PaO2 83mmHg HCO3- 21mEq/L (FIO20.21,PB747mmHg) PIO2 147mm
15、Hg PAO2 110mmHg P(A-a) 27mmHg 第二天再次因胸痛就诊,诊断?,PaO2, PAO2 and the alveolar gas equation,Case2:男性,44岁,因昏迷入院。胸片正常,动脉血气分析: PH7.25 PaCO275mmHg PaO2 95mmHg FIO20.28,PB747mmHg PIO2 196mmHg PAO2 106mmHg P(A-a) 11mmHg,(1)SaO2 and Oxygen Content,EquationsCaO2=(Hb 1.34 SaO2)+(0.003 PaO2)DO2=CO CaO2 10Normal PaO
16、2 doest means normal CaO2CaseA: PaO2 85mmHg,SaO295%,Hb7g/LCaseB: PaO2 55mmHg,SaO285%,Hb15g/L (CaO2 in CaseB is 2 times of CaseA),(2)SaO2 and Oxygen Content,Hypoxia and HypoxemiaHypoxia 1 Hypoxemia(reduced PaO2, SaO2,Hb) 2 Reduced DO2(reduced CO,septic shock) 3 Decreased tissue oxygen uptake(mitochon
17、drial poisoning,left-shifted hemoglobin dissociation curve),(3)SaO2 and Oxygen Content,SaO2 monitoringPulse oximeters do not distinguish COHb and OxyHbWhen tissue perfusion impaired , Pulse oximeters inaccurateWhen SaO240mmHg,SaO275%多提示动脉血)动脉血采集时间点抗凝剂过多标本中有气泡标本未放入冰中FIO2和体温未校正,Acid-Base Disorders,Pri
18、mary acid-base disordersMixed acid-base disorders Respiratory acidosis respiratory alkalosis Metabolic acidosis metabolic alkalosis,Case :65Y,Men, sent to ICUFiO20.21 K5.5 mEq/L PaO290mmHg Na 155 mEq/L PH7.51 CI 90 mEq/L HCO339mEq/L BUN121 mgm%PaCO250mmHg GLu77 mgm%,Metabolic alkalosis+metabolic aci
19、dosis,Primary acid-base disorders,respir primary PaCO2 compen HCO3 Acidemia (PH7.45) metab primary HCO3 compen PaCO2,Compensation Limit,Metabolic acid: PaCO2=1.5 HCO3+(82)Metabolic alkalosis : PaCO2=0.7HCO3+(212)Respiratory acidosis: HCO3=0.35 (HCO3-40) 5.58,How to determine which is primary change?
20、,Patient history is importantIf the compensated PH is 7.35-7.4,the PH must be to have been acidotic initially,decide if PaCO2 or bicarbonate caused the initial acidemia. If the compensated PH is 7.4-7.45,the PH must be to have been alkalotic initially,decide if PaCO2 or bicarbonate caused the initia
21、l alkalemia.,How to determine which is primary change,Examples(1)PH7.38 ,PaCO261mmHg,HCO333mEq/L, BE+9(PaCO2 is the primary change)(2)PH7.50,PaCO251mmHg,HCO331mEq/L(increased HCO3 is the primary change),Mixed acid-base disorders,Rule1: 单纯性酸碱失衡不可能导致正常的PH,如PH正常伴HCO3或PaCO2明显异常,多提示存在复合性酸碱失衡Example: a se
22、psis patient,PH7.40,PaCO2 20mmHg,HCO3- 12mEq/L metabolic acidosis+respiratory alkolosis,Mixed acid-base disorders,Rule2:当PaCO2迅速改变后,HCO3应立刻发生改变,与肾脏代偿无关。(1)PaCO2急性升高时, HCO3即刻轻度升高,如正常或降低提示合并代酸(2)PaCO2急性降低时, HCO3即刻轻度降低,如正常或升高提示合并代碱Rule3:根据公式预计有无复合型失衡,Mixed acid-base disorders,Examples:(1)PH7.27 ,PaCO25
23、0mmHg,HCO322mEq/L (respiratory acidosis+metabolic acidosis)(2) PH7.56,PaCO230mmHg,HCO326mEq/L (respiratory alkadosis+metabolic alkadosis),ABGs Interpretations,VentilationOxygenationAcid-base status,Exercise1,男,55岁,因胸闷、气短入院,既往有高血压病史,长期服用利尿剂和阿司匹林,每天吸烟1包。FiO20.21 PaO262mmHgPH7.53 HCO330mEq/LPaCO237mmHg
24、 Hb14g/L%COHb7.8%, %MetHb0.8%,SaO287% CaO216.5ml O2/dl,Exercise1-interpretation,Oxygenation:mild hypoxemia ,Low SaO2 caused by low PaO2 and increased COHb,P(A-a)=43.6mmHg indicate lung problemVentilation :normalAcid-Base:uncompensated metabolic alkadosisCorrect :check K+and CI-,Exercise2,女,23岁,因呼吸困难
25、急诊。胸部体检和X线检查正常。FiO20.21 PaO2112mmHg Na 141PH7.55 HCO330mEq/L K4.1PaCO225mmHg Hb13g/L CI 106%COHb1.8%, %MetHb0.6%, CO224SaO298% CaO217.4ml O2/dl,Exercise2-interpretation,Oxygenation:no hypoxemia P(A-a)=8mmHg indicate no lung problemVentilation :hyperventilatedAcid-Base:uncompensated (acute) respirato
26、ry alkadosisCorrect :use drugs to calm the patient,Exercise3,女,60岁,因胸痛进入CCU,给予面罩吸氧,拍胸片发现肺水肿。FiO20.40 PaO276mmHgPH7.22 HCO315mEq/LPaCO238mmHg Hb10.8g/L%COHb2.2%, %MetHb6.2%,SaO287% CaO212.2ml O2/dl,Exercise3-interpretation,Oxygenation:Low SaO2(right shift curve and increased MetHb),low CaO2 due to an
27、emia and decreased SaO2,increased P(A-a)=142,due to pulmonary edema Ventilation :hyperventilatedAcid-Base:uncompensated (acute) metabolic acidosisCorrect :give bicarbonate,Exercise4,男,46岁。因肺炎住院2天。出现呼吸困难和低血压。FiO20.33 PaO280mmHgPH7.40 HCO312mEq/LPaCO220mmHg Hb13.3g/L%COHb1.0%, %MetHb0.2%,SaO295% CaO21
28、7.2ml O2/dl,Exercise4-interpretation,Oxygenation:Low expected PaO2 relative to FIO2,increased P(A-a)=131 indicate extreme V/Q imbalance Ventilation :hyperventilatedAcid-Base:metabolic acidosis+respiratory alkalosis Correct :treat underling disease.,Exercise5,男,44岁,因昏迷送入急诊室,血压和心率正常。FiO20.40 PaO2232mm
29、Hg Na136PH7.46 HCO317mEq/L K3.8PaCO225mmHg Hb13g/L CI 101%COHb43%, %MetHb1.2%, CO215SaO255% CaO210.8ml O2/dl,Exercise5-interpretation,Oxygenation :PaO2 relative normal indicate no obvious V/Q imbalance SaO2 and CaO2 decreased significantlyVentilation :hyperventilatedAcid-Base:metabolic acidosis+resp
30、iratory alkalosis (AG=20mEq/L)Correct :,Exercise6,男,48岁,因呼吸困难急诊入院。FiO20.21 PaO245mmHgPH7.19 HCO324mEq/LPaCO265mmHg Hb15.1g/L%COHb1.1%, %MetHb0.4%,SaO290% CaO218.3ml O2/dl,Exercise6-interpretation,Oxygenation :PaO2 decreased ,P(A-a)O2 increased indicate V/Q imbalance ,SaO2 and CaO2 normalVentilation
31、:hypoventilatedAcid-Base: respiratory acidosis + metabolic acidosis Correct :improve ventilation,give bicarbonate,Exercise7,男,65岁,骨折术后突然发生低血压。FiO20.21 PaO257mmHgPH7.47 HCO324mEq/LPaCO232mmHg Hb11.5g/L%COHb1.1%, %MetHb0.4%,SaO283% CaO212.9ml O2/dl,Exercise7-interpretation,Oxygenation :PaO2 decreased
32、,P(A-a)O2 increased (55mmHg)indicate V/Q imbalance ,SaO2 and CaO2 decreasedVentilation :hyperventilatedAcid-Base: respiratory alkalosis Correct : treat PE,Exercise8,病史: 患者,男性,25岁,因咳嗽、咯痰、气短伴发热3天入院。查体:呼吸急促,频率40次/分,口唇紫绀,左肺可闻及湿性罗音。胸片示左肺下叶肺炎。血象:WBC17000/mm3。电解质正常。,Exercise8,血气FiO20.21 PaO238mmHgPH7.55 HC
33、O321mEq/LPaCO225mmHg Hb14.0g/L%COHb1.5%, %MetHb0.4%,SaO278%,Exercise8,Questions:(1)whats the reason of severe hypoxemia(2)whats the patients CaO2?(3)P(A-a)O2?(3)Acid-Base state?(4)how to treat the patient,14.6ml/dl,V/Q imbalance,82mmHg,Acute respiratory alkalosis,Oxygen by face mask and antibiotics,
34、Exercise8,2小时后患者病情无好转,胸片示双肺浸润影,吸高浓度氧时,PaO2仍低于60mmHg,诊断为ARDS。行机械通气治疗(f14,VT700ml)。FiO21.0 PaO2 60mmHgPH7.40 HCO3 15mEq/LPaCO225mmHg Hb13.0g/L%COHb1.5%, %MetHb0.4%,SaO285%,Exercise8,Questions:(1)whats the reason of severe hypoxemia(2)whats the patients P(A-a)O2?(3)Acid-Base state?(4)how to treat the p
35、atient,shunt,Over 600,Respir alkalosis+metabo acidosis,Apply PEEP,Exercise9,患者,男性,65岁。因COPD急性加重入院,长期吸烟史。RR30/min,辅助呼吸肌参与,水肿,神志清楚。动脉血气示:FiO20.21 PaO2 35mmHgPH7.36 HCO3 33mEq/LPaCO260mmHg Hb17.0g/LSaO251%,Exercise9,Questions:(1)whats the reasons for his hypoxemia?(2)how to deal with the patient by now
36、?why?(3) Acid-Base :,Hypoventilation ,V-Q imbalance,carbon monoxide,24% FIO2 by face mask,Compensated respiratory acidosis,Exercise9,经氧疗后患者病情稳定,但6小时后患者出现嗜睡,表情淡漠,复查血气:PH7.10 PaO2 40mmHgHCO3 24mEq/L SaO264%PaCO280mmHg Whats the patients Acid-Base? How to treat the patient by now?,Respiratory acidosis+metabolic acidosis,