1、,English Lexicology (IV),English lexicology (III),2,Contents,10. Changes in Meaning11. American English,To be continued,English lexicology (III),3,Vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in form and content. Comparatively, the content is even m
2、ore unstable than the form.This chapter will deal with the major patterns that changes in meaning follow and the causes of changes.,English lexicology (III),4,10.1 Types of changes,Extension / GeneralizationladyEconomyOrientationinfluenceholidayssloganScene,English lexicology (III),5,10.1 Types of c
3、hanges,Narrowing / SpecializationDeergirlgarageliquor instant reply,English lexicology (III),6,10.1 Types of changes,Elevation / AmeliorationSth. Low, humble, unpleasant-sth. Noble, agreeable, pleasantMarshallShrewdAngelMinister,English lexicology (III),7,10.1 Types of changes,Degradation / Degenera
4、tionSillyVillain, boor, churlCunning,English lexicology (III),8,10.1 Types of changes,Degradation / DegenerationIntensifiers terrific, fantastic, marvelous, splendid, magnificent, wonderful, superb, tremendous, overpowering, fabuloushorrible, outrageous, awful, dreadful.Weakening of meaning of inten
5、sifiers,English lexicology (III),9,10.1 Types of changes,Transference Subjectiveness and objectiveness He is doubtful of success.The future looks doubtful.an honourable gentlemanan honourable invitation,English lexicology (III),10,10.1 Types of changes,Transferencesubjectiveness objectiveness hatefu
6、l: a hateful job, a hateful crimepainful:a painful experience, a painful task pompous language/style/mannera pompous mansolemn music/oath/dutya solemn judge,English lexicology (III),11,10.1 Types of changes,Transference Subjectiveness and objectiveness depend on the collocationa suspicious character
7、/truth/conditiona suspicious look/glance/attitudea dubious answera dubious look,English lexicology (III),12,10.1 Types of changes,Transference,English lexicology (III),13,10.2 Causes of changes,Social developmentPenManuscriptStrawAtom Computer,English lexicology (III),14,10.2 Causes of changes,Class
8、 reasonLanguage is just like a mirror, reflecting everything that exists in human society. Naturally, it records the speech and attitude of different social class.Villain, clown, churlDemocracy, revolution, liberalism, communism, landlord, trade union,English lexicology (III),15,10.2 Causes of chang
9、es,National PsychologySome words or expressions shows the national psychology, especially a feeling of dislike, contempt, irony towards other nationalities.To take French leaveSpanish athleteIrish bullTo talk Dutch, Dutch comfort, Dutch bargain, in DutchAn American will go to hell for a bag of coffe
10、e.,English lexicology (III),16,10.2 Causes of changes,Racial discrimination or prejudices BlackBlack Power, Black is beautiful, Black English, Black historyNegroAfrican Americans, Afro-AmericansNative Americans (Indians),English lexicology (III),17,10.2 Causes of changes,SexismMan: chairman, salesma
11、n, spacemanPoet-poetess, hero-heroine, student-girl student, novelist-lady novelist, doctor-woman doctor, president-female presidentChairperson, businessperson, draftsperson.,English lexicology (III),18,10.2 Causes of changes,Social valuesEuphemism: The substitution of a mild, indirect, or vague exp
12、ression for one that may be offensive, disagreeable, harsh, or blunt.,English lexicology (III),19,10.2 Causes of changes,Social valuesgarbage collector-sanitation engineergardener-landscape architectservant-domestic engineerhairdresser-beauticianold people-senior citizens, mature people, pensionerwa
13、r-conflict,English lexicology (III),20,10.2 Causes of changes,Social valuesthe poor people-the disadvantage, the underprivileged“I used to think I was poor. Then they told me I wasnt poor, I was needy, I was deprived. Then they told me underprivileged was overused. I was disadvantaged. I still dont
14、have a dime. But I have a great vocabulary.”,English lexicology (III),21,10.2 Causes of changes,Linguistic factorsBorrowingpig, cow, sheep-pork, beef, muttondeer-animal, beast,English lexicology (III),22,10.2 Causes of changes,Linguistic factorsSimplifyingas a matter of course-of courseabove all thi
15、ngs-above allGod gives you a good morning-Good morningprivate soldier-privategeneral officer-generalperiodical paper-periodicalfall of leaves-fall,Chapter 11 American English,English lexicology (III),24,In this chapter, we aim to understand the characteristics of American English, to distinguish the
16、 differences between American English and British English. It is a laborious job, while it is important that American English be addressed in English learning.,American English or British English?,English lexicology (III),25,Questions What is American English?Is it American English or British Englis
17、h we are speaking as non-native speakers?Is there essential difference between British English and American English?What are the major differences between them?As non-native speakers, what is the significance for us to distinguish the differences between them?,English lexicology (III),26,11.1 Englis
18、h as an international language,Users of English English as a native language: Britain, the United States, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the West Indies and South Africa.ESL: India, Pakistan, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other countries.EFL: Large numbers of people in the world speak and write
19、 English as a foreign language for the purpose of science, technology, and international communication. It has become a universal language of international communication.,English lexicology (III),27,11.1 English as an international language,Varieties of English As an international language, the Engl
20、ish language has a number of varieties.British English American EnglishAustralian EnglishCanadian EnglishSingapore English,English lexicology (III),28,11.1 English as an international language,Two major varieties of English British English (BrE) and American English(AmE)These two varieties differ in
21、 certain details, but there is no essential difference between them because of the similarities of the basic word stock, the basic grammar and the basic phonetic system. English is unmistakable one language, with two major national dialects.There is no superiority or inferiority as regards BrE and A
22、mE.,English lexicology (III),29,11.2 Growth of American English,Colonial AmericaThe establishment in 1607 of the settlement which the explorers called Jamestown marked the beginning of British colonization in America.By 1732 the original thirteen English colonies had been set up. The language the ea
23、rly immigrants brought with them was Elizabethan English, the language spoken by Shakespeare, Milton and Bunyan, which belonged to the early stage of Modern English.,English lexicology (III),30,11.2 Growth of American English,Colonial AmericaThe original thirteen coloniesVirginia, Maryland, North Ca
24、rolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Hampshire and Connecticut.,English lexicology (III),31,11.2 Growth of American English,After independenceFollowing American independence, famous persons like Thomas Jefferson, John Adams,
25、Benjamin Franklin, and Noah Webster begin to consider that the country should have a language of its own.The independence led to the emergence a sense of nationality. In the field of language, this patriotic feeling was manifested by the argument for the recognition of the American variety or standa
26、rd of English.,English lexicology (III),32,11.2 Growth of American English,After independenceIn 1806, Noah Webster first used “American English”.Webster proclaimed that his countrymen had not only the right to adopt new words but were obliged to modify the language to suit the new circumstances, geo
27、graphical and political, in which they were placed.Many great writers, such as Washington Irving, Walt Whitman, Ralph W. Emerson, mark Twain, and O. Henry helped to promote the development of the American English.,English lexicology (III),33,11.2 Growth of American English,After independenceAmerican
28、 English has developed a character of its own, reflecting the life and the physical and social environment of the American people.The Americans invented large numbers of new words to meet their various needs.representative, assembly, president, Congress, senatordepartment store, telephone, lynchto a
29、dvocate, to antagonize, to demoralize, to donate,English lexicology (III),34,11.2 Growth of American English,The future of American EnglishSince the Second World War, the United States has become literally the leader of the western world, American English has been developing and changing. There is n
30、o doubt that American English will enrich the English language greatly.With the rapid development of modern mass media and the common needs of economic, cultural and political exchanges, American English will be more widely used in the world than British English.,English lexicology (III),35,11.3 Dif
31、ferences between BrE and AmE,Major differencesDifferences in grammarDifferences in spellingDifferences in pronunciationDifferences in vocabulary,English lexicology (III),36,11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in grammar On the whole BrE and AmE use the same grammar system. Differences i
32、n grammar are few in number and trifling in nature. However, it is important for non-native speakers to understand these distinctions.,English lexicology (III),37,11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in grammar Differences in prepositionsMary aims to become a writer.Mary aims at becoming
33、 a writer.Please fill out the form.Please fill in the form.At weekends I like to .On weekends I like to,AmE,BrE,BrE,BrE,AmE,AmE,English lexicology (III),38,11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in grammar Differences in prepositions,English lexicology (III),39,11.3 Differences between BrE
34、 and AmE,Differences in grammar Differences in prepositionsLets stay home.Lets stay at home.The new term begins September 1.The new term begins on September 1.Ill see you Sunday.Ill see you on Sunday.Were trying to plan our future.Were trying to plan for the future.,English lexicology (III),40,11.3
35、Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in grammar The use of subjunctiveI suggest that the meeting should be postponed.I suggest that the meeting be postponed.It is important that the motion should be placed on the agenda.It is important that the motion be placed on the agenda.,English lexicolo
36、gy (III),41,11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in grammar The use of articlesToday is July first, nineteen ninety-seven.Today is July the first, nineteen ninety-seven.My uncle had the flu last year.My uncle had flu last year.Its in bad condition.Its in a bad condition.,English lexicolo
37、gy (III),42,11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in spelling,English lexicology (III),43,11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in spelling,English lexicology (III),44,11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in spelling,English lexicology (III),45,11.2 Differences betw
38、een BrE and AmE,Difference in vocabulary,English lexicology (III),46,11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE,Difference in vocabulary,English lexicology (III),47,11.2 Differences between BrE and AmE,Difference in vocabularyThree terms-two semesters or four quartersThe first year, the second year, the t
39、hird year-freshman, sophomore, junior, seniorPost-graduate-graduateStaff-faculty,English lexicology (III),48,11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE,Difference in vocabularyBillionFirst floorPublic school(BrE)-private school(AmE)Public school (AmE)-Council school (BrE)Cupboard,English lexicology (III),49,11.3 Differences between BrE and AmE,Differences in pronunciationSee page 199-200,
