1、17.1.1 Overview and Limitations NOx emission consists of mostly nitric oxide (NO). Less significant are nitrogen oxide (NO 2) and nitrous oxide (N 2O). NOx is a precursor for photochemical smog, contributes to acid rain, and causes ozone depletion. Thus, NOx is a pollutant. The FLUENT NOx model prov
2、ides a tool to understand the sources of NOx production and to aid in the design of NOx control measures. NOx Modeling in FLUENT The FLUENT NOx model provides the capability to model thermal, prompt, and fuel NOx formation as well as NOx consumption due to reburning in combustion systems. It uses ra
3、te models developed at the Department of Fuel and Energy, The University of Leeds, England as well as from the open literature. To predict NOx emission, FLUENT solves a transport equation for nitric oxide (NO) concentration. With fuel NOx sources, FLUENT solves an additional transport equation for a
4、n intermediate species (HCN or NH 3). The NOx transport equations are solved based on a given flow field and combustion solution. In other words, NOx is postprocessed from a combustion simulation. It is thus evident that an accurate combustion solution becomes a prerequisite of NOx prediction. For e
5、xample, thermal NOx production doubles for every 90 K temperature increase when the flame temperature is about 2200 K. Great care must be exercised to provide accurate thermophysical data and boundary condition inputs for the combustion model. Appropriate turbulence, chemistry, radiation and other s
6、ubmodels must be applied. To be realistic, one can only expect results to be as accurate as the input data and the selected physical models. Under most circumstances, NOx variation trends can be accurately predicted but the NOx quantity itself cannot be pinpointed. Accurate prediction of NOx paramet
7、ric trends can cut down on the number of laboratory tests, allow more design variations to be studied, shorten the design cycle, and reduce product development cost. That is truly the power of the FLUENT NOx model and, in fact, the power of CFD in general. The Formation of NOx in Flames In laminar f
8、lames, and at the molecular level within turbulent flames, the formation of NOx can be attributed to four distinct chemical kinetic processes: thermal NOx formation, prompt NOx formation, fuel NOx formation, and reburning. Thermal NOx is formed by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen present in the
9、 combustion air. Prompt NOx is produced by high-speed reactions at the flame front, and fuel NOx is produced by oxidation of nitrogen contained in the fuel. The reburning mechanism reduces the total NOx formation by accounting for the reaction of NO with hydrocarbons. The FLUENT NOx model is able to
10、 simulate all four of these processes. Restrictions on NOx Modeling You must use the segregated solver. The NOx models are not available with either of the coupled solvers. The NOx models cannot be used in conjunction with the premixed combustion model. 17.1.2 Governing Equations for NOx Transport F
11、LUENT solves the mass transport equation for the NO species, taking into account convection, diffusion, production and consumption of NO and related species. This approach is completely general, being derived from the fundamental principle of mass conservation. The effect of residence time in NOx me
12、chanisms, a Lagrangian reference frame concept, is included through the convection terms in the governing equations written in the Eulerian reference frame. For thermal and prompt NOx mechanisms, only the NO species transport equation is needed: (17.1.1)As discussed in Section 17.1.5, the fuel NOx m
13、echanisms are more involved. The tracking of nitrogen-containing intermediate species is important. FLUENT solves a transport equation for the HCN or NH 3 species in addition to the NO species: (17.1.2)(17.1.3)where , , and are mass fractions of HCN, NH 3, and NO in the gas phase. The source terms ,
14、 , and are to be determined next for different NOx mechanisms. 17.1.3 Thermal NOx Formation The formation of thermal NOx is determined by a set of highly temperature-dependent chemical reactions known as the extended Zeldovich mechanism. The principal reactions governing the formation of thermal NOx
15、 from molecular nitrogen are as follows: (17.1.4)(17.1.5)A third reaction has been shown to contribute, particularly at near-stoichiometric conditions and in fuel-rich mixtures: (17.1.6)Thermal NOx Reaction Rates The rate constants for these reactions have been measured in numerous experimental stud
16、ies 21, 70, 162, and the data obtained from these studies have been critically evaluated by Baulch et al. 11 and Hanson and Salimian 88. The expressions for the rate coefficients for Reactions 17.1-4- 17.1-6 used in the NOx model are given below. These were selected based on the evaluation of Hanson
17、 and Salimian 88. (17.1.7)(17.1.8)(17.1.9)(17.1.10)(17.1.11)(17.1.12)In the above expressions, k 1, k 2, and k 3 are the rate constants for the forward reactions 17.1-4- 17.1-6, respectively, and k -1, k -2, and k -3 are the corresponding reverse rates. The net rate of formation of NO via Reactions
18、17.1-4- 17.1-6 is given by = - (17.1.13)where all concentrations have units of gmol/m 3. In order to calculate the formation rates of NO and N, the concentrations of O, H, and OH are required. The Quasi-Steady Assumption for N The rate of formation of NOx is significant only at high temperatures (gr
19、eater than 1800 K) because fixation of nitrogen requires the breaking of the strong N 2 triple bond (dissociation energy of 941 kJ/gmol). This effect is represented by the high activation energy of Reaction 17.1-4, which makes it the rate-limiting step of the extended Zeldovich mechanism. However, t
20、he activation energy for oxidation of N atoms is small. When there is sufficient oxygen, as in a fuel-lean flame, the rate of consumption of free nitrogen atoms becomes equal to the rate of its formation and therefore a quasi-steady state can be established. This assumption is valid for most combust
21、ion cases except in extremely fuel-rich combustion conditions. Hence the NO formation rate becomes (17.1.14)Sensitivity of Thermal NOx to Temperature From Equation 17.1-14 it is clear that the rate of formation of NO will increase with increasing oxygen concentration. It also appears that thermal NO
22、 formation should be highly dependent on temperature but independent of fuel type. In fact, based on the limiting rate described in Equation 17.1-7, thermal NOx production rate doubles for every 90 K temperature increase beyond 2200 K. Decoupling NOx and Flame Calculations In order to solve Equation
23、 17.1-14, concentration of O atoms and the free radical OH will be required in addition to concentration of stable species (i.e., O 2, N 2). Following the suggestion by Zeldovich, the thermal NOx formation mechanism can be decoupled from the main combustion process, by assuming equilibrium values of
24、 temperature, stable species, O atoms, and OH radicals. However, radical concentrations, O atoms in particular, are observed to be more abundant than their equilibrium levels. The effect of partial equilibrium O atoms on NOx formation rate has been investigated 159 during laminar methane-air combust
25、ion. The results of these investigations indicate that the level of NOx emission can be underpredicted by as much as 28% in the flame zone, when assuming equilibrium O-atom concentrations. Determining O Radical Concentration There has been little detailed study of radical concentration in industrial
26、 turbulent flames, but work 56 has demonstrated the existence of this phenomenon in turbulent diffusion flames. Presently, there is no definitive conclusion as to the effect of partial equilibrium on NOx formation rates in turbulent flames. Peters and Donnerhack 178 suggest that partial equilibrium
27、radicals can account for no more than a 25% increase in thermal NOx and that fluid dynamics has the dominant effect on NOx formation rate. Bilger et al. 18 suggest that in turbulent diffusion flames, the effect of O atom overshoot on NOx formation rate is very important. In order to overcome this po
28、ssible inaccuracy, one approach would be to couple the extended Zeldovich mechanism with a detailed hydrocarbon combustion mechanism involving many reactions, species, and steps. This approach has been used previously for research purposes 156. However, long computer processing time has made the met
29、hod economically unattractive and its extension to turbulent flows difficult. To determine the O radical concentration, FLUENT uses one of three approaches-the equilibrium approach, the partial equilibrium approach, and the predicted concentration approach-in recognition of the ongoing controversy d
30、iscussed above. Method 1: Equilibrium Approach The kinetics of the thermal NOx formation rate is much slower than the main hydrocarbon oxidation rate, and so most of the thermal NOx is formed after completion of combustion. Therefore, the thermal NOx formation process can often be decoupled from the
31、 main combustion reaction mechanism and the NOx formation rate can be calculated by assuming equilibration of the combustion reactions. Using this approach, the calculation of the thermal NOx formation rate is considerably simplified. The assumption of equilibrium can be justified by a reduction in
32、the importance of radical overshoots at higher flame temperature 55. According to Westenberg 265, the equilibrium O-atom concentration can be obtained from the expression (17.1.15)With k p included, this expression becomes (17.1.16)where T is in Kelvin. Method 2: Partial Equilibrium Approach An impr
33、ovement to method 1 can be made by accounting for third-body reactions in the O 2 dissociation-recombination process: (17.1.17)Equation 17.1-16 is then replaced by the following expression 255: (17.1.18)which generally leads to a higher partial O-atom concentration. Method 3: Predicted O Approach Wh
34、en the O-atom concentration is well-predicted using an advanced chemistry model (such as the flamelet submodel of the non-premixed model), O can be taken simply from the local O-species mass fraction. Determining OH Radical Concentration FLUENT uses one of three approaches to determine the OH radica
35、l concentration: the exclusion of OH from the thermal NOx calculation approach, the partial equilibrium approach, and the use of the predicted OH concentration approach. Method 1: Exclusion of OH Approach In this approach, the third reaction in the extended Zeldovich mechanism (Equation 17.1-6) is a
36、ssumed to be negligible through the following observation: This assumption is justified for lean fuel conditions and is a reasonable assumption for most cases. Method 2: Partial Equilibrium Approach In this approach, the concentration of OH in the third reaction in the extended Zeldovich mechanism (
37、Equation 17.1-6) is given by 12, 264 (17.1.19)Method 3: Predicted OH Approach As in the predicted O approach, when the OH radical concentration is well-predicted using an advanced chemistry model such as the flamelet model, OH can be taken directly from the local OH species mass fraction. Summary To
38、 summarize, thermal NOx formation rate is predicted by Equation 17.1-14. The O-atom concentration needed in Equation 17.1-14 is computed using Equation 17.1-16 for the equilibrium assumption, using Equation 17.1-18 for a partial equilibrium assumption, or using the local O-species mass fraction. You
39、 will make the choice during problem setup. In terms of the transport equation for NO (Equation 17.1-1), the NO source term due to thermal NOx mechanisms is (17.1.20)where is the molecular weight of NO, and is computed from Equation 17.1-14. 17.1.4 Prompt NOx Formation It is known that during combus
40、tion of hydrocarbon fuels, the NOx formation rate can exceed that produced from direct oxidation of nitrogen molecules (i.e., thermal NOx). Where and When Prompt NOx Occurs The presence of a second mechanism leading to NOx formation was first identified by Fenimore 63 and was termed prompt NOx. Ther
41、e is good evidence that prompt NOx can be formed in a significant quantity in some combustion environments, such as in low-temperature, fuel-rich conditions and where residence times are short. Surface burners, staged combustion systems, and gas turbines can create such conditions 6. At present the
42、prompt NOx contribution to total NOx from stationary combustors is small. However, as NOx emissions are reduced to very low levels by employing new strategies (burner design or furnace geometry modification), the relative importance of the prompt NOx can be expected to increase. Prompt NOx Mechanism
43、 Prompt NOx is most prevalent in rich flames. The actual formation involves a complex series of reactions and many possible intermediate species. The route now accepted is as follows: (17.1.21)(17.1.22)(17.1.23)(17.1.24)A number of species resulting from fuel fragmentation have been suggested as the
44、 source of prompt NOx in hydrocarbon flames (e.g., CH, CH 2, C, C 2H), but the major contribution is from CH (Equation 17.1-21) and CH 2, via (17.1.25)The products of these reactions could lead to formation of amines and cyano compounds that subsequently react to form NO by reactions similar to thos
45、e occurring in oxidation of fuel nitrogen, for example: (17.1.26)Factors of Prompt NOx Formation Prompt NOx formation is proportional to the number of carbon atoms present per unit volume and is independent of the parent hydrocarbon identity. The quantity of HCN formed increases with the concentrati
46、on of hydrocarbon radicals, which in turn increases with equivalence ratio. As the equivalence ratio increases, prompt NOx production increases at first, then passes a peak, and finally decreases due to a deficiency in oxygen. Primary Reaction Reaction 17.1-21 is of primary importance. In recent stu
47、dies 201, comparison of probability density distributions for the location of the peak NOx with those obtained for the peak CH have shown close correspondence, indicating that the majority of the NOx at the flame base is prompt NOx formed by the CH reaction. Assuming that Reaction 17.1-21 controls t
48、he prompt NOx formation rate, (17.1.27)Modeling Strategy There are, however, uncertainties about the rate data for the above reaction. From Reactions 17.1-21- 17.1-25, it can be concluded that the prediction of prompt NOx formation within the flame requires coupling of the NOx kinetics to an actual
49、hydrocarbon combustion mechanism. Hydrocarbon combustion mechanisms involve many steps and, as mentioned previously, are extremely complex and costly to compute. In the present NOx model, a global kinetic parameter derived by De Soete 223 is used. De Soete compared the experimental values of total NOx formation rate with the rate of formation calculated by numerical integration of the empirical overall reaction rates of NOx and N 2 formation. He showed that overall prompt formation rate can be predicted from the expression = (1
