1、段落的整体性Paragraph Unity段落写作要遵循整体性或统一性(unity)原则，这是段落写作的重要要求之一，这对任何文体的写作都极为重要。段落的整体性是指段落内容应保持一致，每个段落只能阐述一个中心思想，每一个句子都应与主题句密切相关，那些与主题无关和不能展开论证主题思想的句子应删去，从而形成一个严谨的段落内容结构。如要讨论另一个观点，就要另起一段。阅读下面段落，并分析段落是否具有一致性。There are few places in the world today that have not beenspoiled by industrial development and pol
2、lutionThe air we breathe is more often than not polluted by the smoke from factory chimneys and the exhaust fumes of motor vehicles，while chemical waste poisons our rivers，lakes and seasAnd by covering more and more of the earths surfacewith buildings and roads，we are erecting huge barriers of concr
3、ete betweenourselves and natureIt would appear that we are purposely cutting ourselves off from nature and destroying wildlife as we do so.这段例文中，所有的句子都是围绕着“我们生存环境被污染，生态环境被破坏”这一主题论述的，具有较好的统一性。Another problem facing a number of elderly people is livingon a reduced incomeUpon retiring，old people may re
4、ceive a pension from their company or Social Security from the government. The amount of their monthly checks is often half the amount the checks they received when they were employedSuddenly，retirees find that they can no longer continue the life-style that they had become accustomed to, even if th
5、at life-style was a modest oneMany find, after paving their monthly bills，that there is no money left for a movie or a dinner outOf course，sometimes they can t go out because of their healthMaybe they have arthritis or rheumatism and it is painful for them to move aroundThis can also change their li
6、fe-style. Some older people，however，discover that the small amount of money they receive will not even cover their monthly billsThey realize with horror that electricity，a telephone，and nourishing food are luxuries they can no longer affordThey resort to shivering in the dark，eating cat food in orde
7、r to make ends meet这个段落的主题是“another problem facing a number of elderlypeople”，中心思想是“living on a reduced income” 。因此，所有的句子都应围绕这个主题。但是在这个段落中，有三个句子并没有讨论到这一特定的主题。所以，这些句子应从这个段落中删除，或应在另加一个段落中展开。它们是：(1) Of course， sometimes they cant go out because of their health.(2) Maybe they have arthritis or rheumatis
8、m and it is painfulfor them to move around(3)This can also change their life-style下面是论述同一题目的两个段落。试比较哪个段落具有整体性Paragraph 1Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancerInthe early 1900s，few cancer patients had any hope of long-term survivalIn the 1930s，less than one in five cancer victim
9、s 1ived more than five yearsIn the 1950s，the ratio was one in fourCurrently，the ratio is down to one in threeThe gain from one in four to one in three represents about 5 8,000 lives saved each yearParagraph 2Progress is gradually being made in the fight against cancerIn the early 1900s，few cancer pa
10、tients had any hope of long-term survivalBut because of advances in medical technology，progress has been made so that currently one in three cancer patients survivesIt has been proven that smokingis a direct cause of lung cancerHowever，the battle has not yet been wonAlthough cures for some forms of
11、cancer have been discovered，other forms of cancer are still increasingHeart disease is also increasing这两个段落都是讨论关于“surviving cancer”问题的，两段的主题句相同，且均位于段首。第一段例文阐明主题句之后，用了连续直叙的方法展述，并用三个辅助句加以具体事实分别对其观点进行论证。结论句在前面展述的基础上进行总结，并与主题句相呼应。整个段落紧扣主题，结构层次清楚，具有统一性。在第二段例文中，并不是每个句子都紧扣主题，破坏了段落内容的整体性。所以第二个段落显得缺乏统一性，是不可取
12、的。段落的一致性是一个段落的意思是否清楚的关键。所以，段落写作要保持该段落内容的一致、思想的完整和逻辑的合理。Paragraph 1One of the first problems that students have is learning to use a computerAll students were required to buy a computer before school startedThroughout the first semester we took a special course to teach us to use a computerMy noteboo
13、k computer has a large memory and can do word processing and spreadsheetsIt has a hard drive and a modemMy parents were happy that I had a computer, but they were concerned about the priceTuition was high，and when they added in the price of the computer，it was almost out of reachTo offset expenses，I
14、 got a part-time job in the school library. Now I am determined to overcome “computer anxiety” and to master my computer by the end of the semester这个段落缺乏统一性，没有一个统一的中心思想，整个段落不是围绕一个主题展开论述的。下面让我们来修改这个段落。在修改段落前，我们必须确定段落的主要论点到底是什么，然后再确定展开主题的句子。比较修改后的段落：Paragraph 2One of the first problems that I had as a
15、 college student waslearning to use my computerAll first-year students were required to buy a computer before school startedThroughout the first semester，we took a special course to teach us to use the computerIn theory this system sounded fine，but in my case it was a disasterIn the first place，the
16、closest I had ever come to a computer was the hand-held calculator I used in math classIn the second place，I could not typeAnd to make matters worse，many of the peoplein my computer orientation course already knew how to operate a computerBy the end of the first week I was convinced that I would nev
17、er be able to work with my computer Directions：Try to identify whether the following two paragraphsare unifiedPick out any sentence which is not related to the control1ing idea of the paragraphParagraph 1For hundreds of years， man has made use of the talents of monkeys. Ancient Egyptian paintings sh
18、ow baboons gathering fruit for their mastersEven in 1879，in Abyssinia，monkeys were still being used as torchbearers at feastsThe monkeys would sit in a row on a bench and hold the lights until the guests went homeThen the monkeys would eatMost of the worlds zoos contain a variety of monkeys for peop
19、le to watchParagraph 2Two small eyes，starved and frightened，peered from beneathhis disheveled eyebrows；the red rims about his eyes were reminiscent of the time when he could wash down a dish of fried liver and hard-boiled eggs with a pint of vodka every morning after prayer. Now，all day long，he wand
20、ered through the marketplace，inha1ing butcher-shop odors and those from restaurants，sniffling like a dog，and occasionally napping on porters cartsWith the refuse he had collected in a basket，he fed his kitchen stove at night；then rolling the sleeves over his hairy arms，he would grate turnips on a gr
21、ater.段落的连贯性段落写作的另一个重要要求是连贯性(coherence)。连贯，一是指结构上的连贯；二是指内容上的连贯。也就是文章的结构层次和连接应按照一定的逻辑顺序编排，在一个句子衔接下一个句子时，或是一个段落连接下一个段落时，必须是合乎逻辑、连贯紧凑的，不应有跳跃。这样，句子或段落衔接自然流畅，文章层次分明，脉络清晰。读者就会比较容易跟随作者的思路深入理解写作内容。在此主要讨论两种保持段落连贯性的方法：第一，用转承词语或称转承信号词(transition signals)表明一个意思是怎样与下个意思相连的；第二，按照一定的逻辑顺序排列句子，采用何种逻辑顺序应取决于文章的主题和写作目的。
22、最常用的逻辑顺序是时间顺序(chronological order 或 time order)、空间顺序(spatial order)和主次顺序(order of importance)。在同一个段落的写作中，可以把不同的逻辑顺序有机地结合起来。阅读下面段落，并分析段落是否具有连贯性。Three types of data relationships are possible：one-to-one，one-to-many(two or more)，and many-to-many Within these categories， the number of possible combinati
23、ons is almostlimitless，requiring restraint on the part of the database designer to avoid extreme complexity At the same time，the designer must be sure to include all the relationships that are neededIn a simple basketball statistics application，only players are described and the values of most attri
24、butes have one-to-one relationships with each other For example，last name，first name，player number，baskets made，baskets attempted，etcSimilarly，in a record of games played, each team has one owner，one hometown，one nickname，etc这个例段具有连贯性。段中每个句子都很合乎逻辑地与下个句子相连接。在上下文衔接与过渡中，作者主要运用了以下词语：within these categor
25、ies，at the same time，for example 等。通过这些转承词语连接前后句的意思，使整个段落有机地结合在一起。如果我们写一个段落，来阐述某一具体的观点，而段落中的句子都是拼凑而成的，缺乏内在的联系和逻辑性。那么，这个段落可能仍具有统一性，但是段落内容却不是连贯的。请对比下面段落：Three types of data relationships are possible：one-to-one，one-to-many(two or more)，and many-to-manyIn a simple basketballapplication，only players are
26、 described and the values of most attributes have one-to-one relationships to each otherWithin these categories，the number of possible combinations is almost limitlessrequiring restraint on the part of the database designer to avoid extreme complexityFor example，last name，first name，player number，ba
27、skets made，baskets attempted，etcAt the same time，the designer must be sure to include all the relationships that are neededSimilarly，in a record of games played，each team has one owner，one hometown，one nickname，etc 在上面这个段落中，句子的内容语无伦次，没有按事情发展的先后顺序排列，不符合人们的思维习惯，影响了段落的连贯性，不能充分地表达思想。由此可以看出，只有统一性和连贯性结合在一
28、起才能使读者理解作者的意图和观点。在写作中，段落篇章的完整性是指文章基于一个统一的主题，而连贯性则是指在内容的安排以及材料的组织顺序上要考虑它们之间的各种联系。1转承词语(Transitional Words)运用转承词语是保持段落连贯性的一个重要方法。转承词语像“桥梁”一样把一个句子的意思同另一个句子的意思连接起来。转承词语是用于指示写作方向的词语，告诉读者作者在什么时候阐述一个相同的意义，什么时候阐述一个相反的意思，什么时候举例，什么时候给出结果或结论。因此运用转承词语不仅能使行文连贯自然，而且能指导读者跟随作者的思路进行阅读，清楚地掌握该段的脉络。试比较下面两个段落。这两个段落都表达了相
29、同的信息，但向读者传达信息的效果却有很大的差异。Paragraph 1Daniel and I have several things in common that have strengthened our relationshipWe are Asian AmericansBoth of us were born of middle class parents in San Francisco and lived on the same block on the East sideWe got to know each other early in our livesA commonali
30、ty is our ageWe have shared similar interests over the years we have known each otherBoth of us enjoyed taking piano lessonsWe each worked summers at Burger King to help our parents reduce the expenses for us to attend the University of Colorado，where we both majored in artWhat has bonded us togethe
31、r is our mutual respect for each otherWe hold diverse opinions，represent different political and religious beliefs，and lead unique life-stylesWe have remained close to each other even to this dayour twentieth class reunionParagraph 2Daniel and I have several things in common that have strengthened o
32、ur relationship First of all， we are Asian AmericansBoth of us were born of middle class parents in San Francisco and lived on the same block on the East side As a result，we got to know each other early in our livesAnother commonality is our ageIn fact，we have shared similar interests over the years
33、 we have known each otherBoth of us enjoyed taking piano lessons In addition，we each worked summers at Burger King to help our parents reduce the expenses for us to attend the University of Colorado，where we both majored in artThe most significant thing that has bonded us together is our mutual resp
34、ect for each otherCertainly we hold diverse opinions, represent different political and religious beliefs，and lead unique life-styles；we have，nonetheless，remained close to each other even to this dayour twentieth class reunion让我们来分析一下，第一段中没有添加任何转承词。虽然这个段落的内容是统一的，写作内容也是按一定顺序安排的，然而这的确是一个较差的段落。作者要表达的意思
35、并没有连贯流畅地从一个句子过渡到另一个句子，句间的关系不够紧密。第二段经过修改后较之第一段，虽然内容基本上相同，措辞也很少变化，但是由于运用了恰当的转承词语，标明了句子与句子之间的关系，因而段落显得连贯通顺。通过以上分析，可以看出转承词语在段落中起到承启句意、疏通思路作用，使各个句子之间的相互关系表达得更加清晰明了。当然，也不必在每个句子前都用转承词语，切记多用则滥。转承词语的种类转承词语按其作用可以分成四大类：并列连词、连接副词、从属连词、介词和限定词。并列连词(coordinator)连接两个独立的句子构成一个并列句在第一个分句后须用逗号。例如：Mushrooms are good for
36、 you，but I dislike themI dislike mushroomsso I never eat them连接副词(conjunctive adverb)用于把一个句子同另一个句子连接起来构成一个并列句，表示第二个分句与第一个分句的关系。请注意连接副词的标点比较特殊：在第一个分句后用分号，连接副词后要加逗号。例如：I dislike mushrooms；therefore，l never eat them连接副词可以位于简单句的句首，句中或句尾。在句首时，只在连接副词后加逗号；在句中时，则在连接副词前、后加逗号，但如果句子连接词只是一个词，逗号可以省略；在句尾时则在连接副词前加
37、逗号。句首：On the other hand,mushrooms are good for youTherefore，I never eat them句中：I，therefore，never eat themMushrooms,on the other hand,are good for you.I therefore never eat them句尾：I never eat them,thereforeMushrooms are good for you,on the other hand.3 从属连词(subordinator)引导从句同主句相接而构成复合句。从句的位置可在主句前，也可在
38、主句后。当状语从句出现在主句之前时。常常要带有逗号，但状语从句在主句之后，则不需要用逗号把它与主句分开。例如：Although mushrooms are good for you，I never eat themI dislike mushrooms although they are good for youI never eat mushrooms because I dislike themBecause the cost of education has been rising， many studentsare having financial problems4 介词和限定词(p
39、reposition and determiner)在标点符号方面没有特定的要求。常用的介词词组如：because of，due to, inspite of；常用的限定词如：another，additional，final 等。例如：I dislike mushrooms because of a bad experience I once hadAnother reason I dislike mushrooms is their rubbery consistency.段落间的转承词语转承语不仅在段落内很重要，而且在段落之间也很重要。我们可以把段落之间的转承语看作是链条的连结，通过给第二
40、个段落的主题句加转承语把两个段落连接起来。单个的词、短语或概括上个段落主题思想的从句都可以充当段落间的转承词语。阅读下面例文，注意段落之间是怎样使用转承词、短语和从句连接的。FlextimeOne of the most important changes that management has made in industry in recent years is the scheduling of flexible work hours for their employees。Workers are given the option of choosing when they will w
41、ork。This allows them more leisure time for family and funFlextime has obvious advantages for both workers and management although it may not be practical in all types of businesses.Transition The first advantage is increased production per work-hourWord (+supporting sentences)Transition A second adv
42、antage is that factory workers are happierWord (+supporting sentences) Transition In addition to increased output and worker satisfactionFactory managers report that absenteeism has declined phrase(+supporting sentences)Transition Although flextime has produced these three positive Clause results ,i
43、t is not as advantageous in all types ofbusinesses(+supporting sentences)ConclusionTo summarize，flextime has resulted in increased productionand happier workers who are less likely to miss work，and itworks well in manufacturing and retail industriesIt worksless well in service industries such as the restaurant andhealth care industries我们在写作中，要学会运用转承词语这一技巧来提高篇章的连贯性，增强语言的表达力。
