1、A Basic Course in Writing,Developing Paragraphs,Chapter 4,What is a paragraph like?,A paragraph is a unit of thought; it is at once a unit in itself and part of a larger whole, that is, the essay; it is like a mini-essay & therefore should be unified, coherent, and well-developed.A paragraph is unif
2、ied when all the sentences in the paragraph are focused on one central thought or on a single topic. When the writer wishes to introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph.A paragraph is coherent when it develops naturally & smoothly, and one sentence leads logically to another.
3、,Length of Paragraphs,Paragraphs vary in length. Experienced writers usually try to vary the length of their paragraphs so as to avoid monotony.The length of a paragraph depends on its topic, its position in the essay and its role in the development of the thesis statement.A long paragraph expresses
4、 a complex idea while a short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.,Unity: concerned with its content; all the sentences in the para. lead to one central theme which is usu. summarized in what is called the topic sentence. Coherence: concerned with its form or its organi
5、zation; all the sentences should be arranged in a clear, logical order & the transitions should be smooth and natural. Transitions.,Qualities of Effective Paragraphs,Ways of Producing a Fluent Para.,Using parallel structures;Repeating words or words groups;Using pronouns to refer to nouns in precedi
6、ng sentences;Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of verbs;Using transitional expressions,Fundamental Features of an Effective Paragraph,a central ideasupporting evidenceclose connection between the sentences,Friend-type parents treat their children as frien
7、ds. They are generous and wise. Like good friends, they discuss with their children the latest news, share their childrens many interests, and listen to their expression of emotion, whether it is anger, fear, joy or sorrow.,Example 1,Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence.,Example 2,I really had a bad day
8、 yesterday. When I went to do some washing, I fell off on the wet floor and broke my glasses. After I hurried downstairs to take my bike only to find I had left my keys on the bedroom on the 7th floor.,Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence.,Pollution exists everywhere. People throw away much rubbish ever
9、yday, and much of it is made of plastic. Some factories send out heavy smoke in the air, and much waste into rivers, and some factories produce loud noise which drive people mad.,Example 3,Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence.,On the second floor, there are two toilets and two balconies, and each of the
10、 four kids has their own separate rooms on this floor. The Smiths often enjoy their meals in a big sitting room on the ground floor, and if the weather is fine, they might eat in the garden. Mr. Smith really has a big house.,Example 4,Topic Sentence: the last sentence.,Sometimes, the topic of a para
11、. is not stated but is implied in the content.,The wind picks up and begins to hurl itself through those deserted streets. Signboards sway violently from side to side, seeming almost to want to go with the wind that blows them. Trees complain as the strong wind tears at their branches, causing them
12、to bend and bow down. With the wind comes the rain, stinging anyone unfortunate enough not yet to have reached the safety of home.,Topic: the scene of a violent storm,Read the following paragraph and answer questions after it.,Using a spell checker on a computer can be a great advantage for a writer
13、. First, the writer can check the spelling of many of the words in the paper. The spell checker tries to match the spelling of the word with a word in its dictionary. Many spell checkers have at least 100,000 words in their dictionaries. Second, the writer can ask the spell checker to suggest a spel
14、ling. If the word is already spelled correctly, the writer can ask the program to ignore the suggested spelling. If the word is misspelled, the writer can request that the program correct the error. Many writers rely on spell checkers to improve the accuracy of their writing. 1. What is the topic of
15、 the paragraph? 2. Underline the topic sentence. 3. Identify the words or phrases used to connect the sentences closely.,Topic: the spell checker. Topic Sentence: the 1st sentence.,Read the following paragraph and answer questions after it.,Some people see things only in “black and white.“ In this e
16、xpression, black and white represent opposite extremes, with no middle ground between them. Most issues in the world are not so simple as black and white. One side of an issue is not all white right or good and the other side is not all black wrong or evil. In the real world there are many gray area
17、s where black and white mix to represent the true situation. from Words and Their Stories, VOA Special English What is the topic of the paragraph? Underline the topic sentence. Identify the words or phrases used to connect the sentences closely.,Topic: “black and white”. Topic Sentence: the 1st sent
18、ence.,Planning a Paragraph,First, think of the topic or theme or main idea, and express it in a complete sentence. Second, think of the details or examples or facts that may be used to support the main idea.Work out an outline to put these details in good order.,Ways of Developing a Paragraph,1. Dev
19、elopment by Time,in chronological sequence = in order of time按时间先后顺序things are mentioned according to the time when they happened, the first thing first & the last thing lastthe easiest & clearest way in telling a story or recounting an event,AnalysisSample (1) Main idea: Time expressions: Sample (2
20、) Main idea: Time expressions:,history of the railroad,in the sixteenth century, by the earlynineteenth century, in 1825, that same year, soon, during the 1830s, by the early 1840s,the writers first day at a new school,as I mounted the stairs to my new classroom; then; during the recess; soon; at th
21、e end of the day,Expressions for Describing Chronological Relations,now, nowadays, when, before, after, while, during between _and_, in _(year), since_ later, earlier, formerly at the turn of the century (decade) in the first half of the century in the 1990s, etc. at birth, in childhood, in infancy,
22、 in adolescence, as an adult, in adulthood, in old age, at death simultaneously, simultaneous with, at the same time as, the former, the latter, previous, previously, prior to first, second, etc.; in the first place, in the second place, etc. to begin with, next, then, subsequently, in the next plac
23、e in conclusion, finally, lastly, in the end,2. Development by Process,explain how sth. is done according to its right sequence so as to avoid mistakes or failuresusu. follow a chronological order and give a step-by-step descriptionimperative sentences & sentences with the indefinite pron. you as th
24、e subject are often used in giving instructionsuse present tense if the instructions are still applicable,Sample 1 ,Analysis The paragraph describes step by step what things should be done before moving house and the present tense is used. However, one thing needs to be noticed in this paragraph: th
25、ough many things should be done before moving house, there seems to be no fix order in which one thing should bedone before another as long as they are all done. This is another way to develop a paragraph by process. There are only two transitional words in this paragraph: Before the men come to mov
26、e the furniture, And lastly,Sample 2 ,1. Firstly, you should. get regular exercise. 2. Just before the exam, it helps to write short notes. 3. On the day of the exam, dont do any studying.,Can you find out those words and phrases that indicate the time sequence in the paragraph?,Expressions for Writ
27、ing Process Descriptions,occur, before, at this point,become, until, at the same time,happen, while, after,grow, as, first,secondly,lastlytake place, once, next,be carried out, then, change into, as soon as,3. Development by Space,First, choose a vantage point (有利位置), from which things are viewed.Se
28、cond, state clearly the spatial relations (空间关系) among the objects being described.Third, concentrate on the best-known features of the place & ignores the minor ones.Lastly, describe the place in present tense.,Sample 1: Oxford ,Analysis This paragraph is a description of the old university town, O
29、xford. In this paragraph, the author obviously stands at the center of Oxford and describes what surrounds him.,Sample 2: The Terrace Park ,Analysis The paragraph gives you a clear and orderly picture of a pretty park. Where do you think the author stands? He must be by one side of the park, for tha
30、t is where he starts his description. The most important feature of the park is the pitches, and other features are the trees, the river, the flowers and other sports facilities. The present tense is used in the description.,Expressions for Describing Spatial Relationships,where, in which, to which,
31、 from which, etc. under, over, inside, beside, on top of, etc. along, through, as far as, etc. north, northern, south, southern, etc. to the left, to the right, to the north, etc. at the back, in front, in the middle, etc. adjacent to parallel rectanglecorresponding to parallel to semicircledistance
32、 perpendicular to slopemidpoint plane spaceinterior opposite surfacediagonal overlapping vertical edge pyramid horizontal limit exterior intersection,4. Development by Example,often used in explaining thingsmake writing vivid, convincing & memorablemake dry, abstract ideas or theories interesting, c
33、oncrete & easy to understand,Analysis The first two sentences of this paragraph seem to present a rather mysterious theory. But when you read the example, you find it really interesting and may even start to believe that there is some truth in it. Examples help to explain what you want to say or pro
34、ve. They make dry and abstract theories easy to understand. So when you write an explanatory paragraph, you should always think of good examples to illustrate your views and points. Using the phrase “For example“ is a convenient way to start.,Sample 1 ,Sample 2 ,Analysis In this paragraph, the autho
35、r develops the controlling sentence with a series of facts involving well-known people. These enable the writer to make abstract key idea “persistent investigation” concrete. They also add dramatic qualities that make the information interesting. We may notice that it is not always necessary to say
36、“for example” or “for instance” when an example is given.,Expressions for Giving Specific Details,for example as an illustrationfor instance in one instancefor one thing in this instanceto illustrate as an examplein other words take _ for exampleas follows consider _ for examplelet me illustrate in
37、practicelet me cite as proof according to statistics according to statistical evidence,5. Development by Comparison & Contrast,The method of comparison tends to focus on the similarities of the two objects being compared while the method of contrast emphasizes the differences between the two objects
38、 being contrasted.There are two major ways of organizing paragraphs of comparison or contrast. One way is to examine one thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the two things should be identical and in the same order. This method is called block comparison/
39、contrast. The other way is to examine two things at the same time, discussing them point by point. This method is called alternating comparison/contrast.,Analysis As you read the paragraph, you find that the author first mentions the disadvantages of living in a big city. Four major problems are lis
40、ted to illustrate the stress urban people have to live with daily. Then he begins to state the advantages of life in a country village by using the words “In contrast.“ Four nice aspects of country life are mentioned, giving you a beautiful picture of the countryside. By contrast, you can immediatel
41、y see the great differences between city life and country life. And block contrast is adopted here.,Sample 1 ,AnalysisUnlike Sample 1, this paragraph focuses on the similarities of the two objects being compared, jogging and Taiji. Neither of the two needs many facilities or help from others. But fo
42、r a wide range of people, both are very effective for keeping fit, and, therefore, very popular. And obviously, this paragraph is also developed by block comparison.,Sample 2 ,Expressions for Making Comparison and Contrast,To Compare: similar to, at the same rate as, similarly, as, like, alike, just
43、 as, likewise, in like manner, correspond to, in the same way, correspondingly, to have _ in common, resemble, common characteristics, etc., resemblance, to be parallel in _, almost the same as, both,To Contrast: differ from, unlike, however, in contrast to, still, in opposition to, nevertheless, on
44、 the contrary, otherwise, on the opposite side, even so, on the other hand, less than, different from, more than, although, faster than, etc., while,6. Development by Cause & Effect,In our daily conversation, questions with why are often asked and answered. This is called causal analysis (因果分析). The
45、re are two basic ways of organizing a paragraph developed by cause and effect: state an effect and devote the rest of the paragraph to examining the causes; state a cause and then mention the effects.,Sample 1 ,Analysis In this paragraph, the opening sentence points out what the record companies hav
46、e been doing recently, and the rest of the paragraph tells us how this affects the classical music industry in a negative way. Obviously the first sentence states the cause and then the rest of the paragraph states the effect. In the paragraph, though words like “why“ or “reason“ are not used, the c
47、ause-effect relationship is clearly implied in the content.,Sample 2 ,Analysis This paragraph starts with the effect the housing in New York is worse for the Puerto Ricans. Then a series of causes are mentioned, such as Puerto Ricans who emigrate are poor, cheap apartments are hard to find, and chea
48、p apartments are in the worse areas. After reading the paragraph, you can see why the housing in New York is worse for the Puerto Ricans. Sample 1 is a good example of a cause paragraph.Please find out the expressions used for cause in the paragraph.,Expressions for Discussing Cause and Effect,so, c
49、onsequently, as a result, thus, therefore, the result of, accordingly, because of, result in, for this reason, owing to, the effect of, since, the consequence of, hence, due to, have an effect on, because, the reason for, the cause of, It follows thatas, now that, so that, seeing that, thanks to, for fear that, out of, such _that, owe _ to, so as _ to, classifications, make _ possible, make it possible/ impossible for _ to do,
