1、Chapter 3,Making Correct and Effective Sentence,Part 1. Correct Sentence All kinds of writing are made up of sentence. So it is necessary for us to learn how to write correct and good sentence. There are at least these requirements:1) It should be structurally complete. 2) It should begin with a cap
2、ital letter. 3) It should end with a full stop, or a question mark, or an exclamation mark. 4) It should express a single complete idea. 1. Completeness in Structure The requirements of completeness in structure are as follow:,1) Each sentence has a subject and a predicate word. 2) And also begins w
3、ith a capital letter and ends with a full stop. For example: She came. John is a good carpenter. The student use these dictionaries every day. He didnt know what had happened and was going to ask Mr. Smith, who was usually well informed. And here are a few incorrect sentences:,How to operate this co
4、mputer? Have lost my key. Because he hadnt finished his assignment, so he continued working in the classroom. The old man returning home after eight years absence to find that all the neighbors he had known were no longer there. How do u operate this computer? I have lost my key. He hadnt finished h
5、is assignment, so he continued working in the classroom. He continued working in the classroom, because he hadnt finished his assignment. The old man returned home after eight years absence to find that all the neighbors he had known were no longer there.,2. The right subject Take a look at a few wr
6、ong sentences here: On entering the classroom, the students stood up and said, “Good Morning”. After finishing her composition, the translation exercise was taken up. Hurrying to the conference room, no one was there. Returning home after work, supper was waiting for him in the kitchen. To look at a
7、 map, the importance of this new railway will be seen. In these five sentences the subjects are not properly related to gerund, participles, or infinitive in the first parts of the sentences. So they are the wrong subjects.,On entering the classroom, the teacher was greeted by the students, who stoo
8、d up and said, “Good Morning”. After finishing her composition, she took up the translation exercise. Hurrying to the conference room, she saw nobody was there. Returning home after work, he saw supper was waiting for him in the kitchen. You have only to look at a map to see the importance of this n
9、ew railway. All these sentences show that the subject of a sentence should be properly related to the nonfinite verbs before it.,3. Agreement Between the Subject and the Predicate Verb We all know the simple rule that the predicate verb of a sentence has to agree with the subject in person and numbe
10、r, such as a third-person singular subject takes a predicate verb with s if the verb is in the present tense. There may be problems when the number of the subject is not easy to determine. First of all, lets take a look at “collective nouns” 集合名词（英语：Collective noun）是语言学上的一个专有名词，意指一种可用来指称一群对象的字，而这些对象
11、，可以是人、动物、或是一群概念等事物 集合名词分为以下几类，并分别简述其有关用法特点：,第一类 形式为单数，但意义可以用为单数或复数这类集合名词包括family(家庭)team(队)class(班)audience(听众)等，其用法特点为：若视为整体，表示单数意义；若考虑其个体成员，表示复数意义。比较,His family is large. 他的家是个大家庭。His family are all waiting for him. 他的一家人都在等他。This class consists of 45 pupils. 这个班由45个学生组成。This class are reading Eng
12、lish now. 这个班的学生在读英语。 第二类 形式为单数，但意义永远为复数这类集合名词包括cattle(牛，牲畜)people(人)police(警察)等，其用法特点为：只有单数形式, 但却表示复数意义，用作主语时谓语用复数；不与 a (an) 连用，但可与the连用。如：People will laugh at you. The police are looking for him. 警察在找他。Many cattle were killed for this. 就因为这个原因宰了不少牲畜。注：表示牲畜的头数，用单位词 head(单复数同形)。如：five head of cattle
13、 5头牛，fifty (head of ) cattle 50头牛,第三类 形式为复数，意义也为复数这类集合名词包括goods(货物), clothes(衣服)等，其用法特点是：只有复数形式,用作主语时谓语也用复数，但通常不与数词连用。如：Clothes dry slowly in the rainy season. 衣服在雨季不易干。Such clothes are very expensive. 那样的衣服很贵。If goods are not well made you should complain to the manufacturer. 如果货物质量不好，则理应向制造商提出控诉。
14、第四类 形式为单数，意义也为单数这类集合名词包括baggage / luggage(行李), clothing(衣服), furniture(家具), machinery(机器), poetry(诗), scenery(风景), jewelry(珠宝), equipment(设备)等,其用法特点为：是不可数名词，只用单数形式，不用不定冠词(当然更不能用数词)，没有复数形式。如：Our clothing protects us from against the cold. 我们的衣服可以御寒。Have you checked all your baggage? 你所有的行李都托运了吗?The t
15、hief stole all her jewelry. 小偷把她所有的首饰都偷走了。The hospital has no decent equipment. 这家医院没有像样的设备。The Tang Dynasty is thought of as the high summer of Chinese poetry. 人们认为唐朝是中国诗歌的全盛时期。注：machinery, poetry, jewelry, scenery等相应的个体可数名词是 machine, poem, jewel, scene等。如：a poem / a piece of poetry 一首诗many machine
16、s / much machinery / many pieces of machinery 许多机器,Take a look at the following sentences: He whole family is/are waiting for him. The majority of the students taking this exam is/are girls. These cattle belong/belongs to that ranch. There is/are an enormous audience in the hall. The audience was/we
17、re shocked by the scenes of violence in the film. There is/are a lot of important news in todays newspaper. Mathematics is/are extremely interesting to him. All the people in the room is/are enjoying his funny stories.,The police has/have begun making inquiries about the case. The number of PhD degr
18、ee holders among the teaching staff of the school is/are very small. A number of PhD degree holders are teaching at this university. Secondly, lets study “proximity” “就近原则”. 就近原则： 也称“邻近原则”“就近一致原则”，即：谓语与靠近的名词、代词（有时不一定是主语）在“人称、数”上一致。 I.在正式文体中： 1.由下列词语连接的并列主语：“there be句型; or ; either or；nor; neithernor
19、；whetheror；notbut; not onlybut also” ; 等。 如下：,What he does or what he says does not concern me . 他的行为或言谈都与我无关 Neither you nor I am wrong . 你和我都没错。 Not you but your father is to blame . 不是你，而是你父亲该受责备。 Not only you but (also) he is wrong .不仅你错了，他也错了。 2. 在倒装句中：谓语可与后面第一个主语一致。e.g. In the distance was hea
20、rd the clapping of hands and the shouts of the people . 在远处，能听见鼓掌声和人们的呼喊声。There is (are) a pen and some books on the desk .桌上有一支钢笔和几本书。,就远原则 谓语动词与前面主语一致 代表词汇：as well as；（together/along）with；rather than；except；besides；but；including；in addition to；apart from 如下： He rather than I is right. Nobody but t
21、wo students is in the classroom. Take a look at the following sentences: There is/are an old worker and three young men doing the job today. Either you or I are/am to take up the work. John, together with two assistants, is/are repairing the machine. Besides Smith, William is/are going to speak at t
22、he meeting.,And finally, we should know that a subject clause generally takes a singular verb, but a what-clause which clearly refers to many things can take a plural verb. The following are some examples: Where I can put all these books is/are a problem. What I want is/are only three meals a day. W
23、hat she has bought are atlases and maps of various countries. 4. Agreement Between Pronoun and Antecedent Just as the predicate verb of a sentence has to agree with the subject in person and number, so a pronoun has to agree with its antecedent. Take a look at the following examples:,The owner and t
24、he captain refused to leave their distressed ship. The owner and the captain refused to leave his distressed ship. In the first sentence, the owner and the captain are two different persons, so there is used. In the second one, the pronoun his tells us that the owner of the ship is also its captain.
25、 After a compound antecedent with or ; either or；nor; neithernor；whetheror；notbut; not onlybut also” , a pronoun agrees with the nearer part of the antecedent. Examples: Neither the CEO nor his assistant was in his office. Neither the CEO nor his assistants were in their office.,For such singular an
26、tecedents as each, either, neither, one, on one, everyone, someone, anyone, nobody, everybody, somebody, and anybody, which may refer to both male and female, she or he, his or her, him or her, or the preferred plural pronouns they, their or them are used. Example, Everybody should return the books
27、they borrowed within a week. 5. Clear Pronoun Reference Firstly, Personal pronouns should be used with care. Here are a few sentences in which the pronouns do not have clear reference: Im going to the talk on jazz music for he is a well-known composer.,Leave out the word in that sentence because it
28、is too difficult. She told my sister that her idea was practicable. In the first sentence the pronoun he has no antecedent, because no person has been mentioned. So, it will be clear if we use the noun the speaker instead of the pronoun he. See as follow: Im going to the talk on jazz music for the s
29、peaker is a well-known composer. In the second sentence there are two nouns before the pronoun it, and the reader is not sure which is too difficult, the word or the sentence. So we can put it in these two ways: Leave out the word because it is too difficult.,Leave out the word because with it the s
30、entence would be too difficult. In the third sentence, two women are mentioned- she and my sister. This makes the reference of her unclear. Either her own or my sisters can be used. She told my sister that her own idea was practicable. She told my sister that my sisters idea was practicable. Secondl
31、y, Relative pronouns should also be used carefully. We should avoid making sentences like the following: She put many toys into her bag, which she was to give to the children in the kindergarten. He is the man recommended by Mr. Smith who knows how to fix cars.,In the first sentence the word bag see
32、ms to be the antecedent of which as it is close to the relative pronoun, but the real antecedent should be toys. In the second sentence who may stand for either Mr. Smith or the man. The ambiguity in these two sentences may be removed in the following way: She put into her bag many toys, which she w
33、as to give to the children in the kindergarten. He has been recommended by Mr. Smith as a man who knows how to fix cars. Or: Mr. Smith, who knows how to fix cars, has recommended him. In short, when we use personal and relative pronouns, we should make sure that their reference is clear.,6. Ending S
34、entences with Full Stops(P52) 7. Joining Clauses with Conjunctions When two or more sentences are closely connected in meaning, it may be better to put them into one sentence than separate them. Then those sentences will become clauses which should be joined together with proper conjunctions or othe
35、r words, like relative pronouns. For examples: When I set out for the biggest bookstore in town, I saw at the school gate a girl of my class. She was also going there, so we decided to go together. We walked, for the bookstore was not far away. Besides, we should learn to distinguish between conjunc
36、tions and adverbs, such as but and however,So and therefore. We can join coordinate clauses with a comma and a conjunction, or with a semicolon, or with a semicolon and an adverb. For examples: She enjoys listening to pop music, but her sister doesnt. She enjoys listening to pop music; however, her
37、sister doesnt. She speaks English fluently; moreover, she speaks French quite well. The plans for the building are not yet ready; therefore the construction cannot start very soon. 8. A Main clause in a Complex Sentence In a complex sentence there must be a main clause, whether it is at the beginnin
38、g, in the middle or at the,end of the sentence. For examples: He would come to see me whenever he was in this city. When she heard the explosion, she called me immediately to ask what had happened. Because he had not heard about that important decision. Whatever the director said at the conference.
39、We can see that the last two sentences are not complete because they are adverbial, subject clauses, while the main clauses are missing. 9. Proper Use of Comparisons Adjectives or adverbs of the comparative degree,should be used only when there is a comparison. They are rightly used in the following
40、 sentence. His latest novel is more interesting than all his earlier works. She speaks better than she writes. He talks more than he does. Sometimes a comparison is implied: Most of his poems are difficult to understand. This one is not easier. However, we should not use adj or adv comparative degre
41、e when there is no comparison, explicit or implied, like the following: He is a better student. The text is easier.,In addition, we should remember that only things of the same kind can be compared. The following comparisons are not logical. Her English is better than I. The language of Henry is mor
42、e elaborate than Hemingway. So, we can put it in this way: Her English is better than mine. The language of Henry is more elaborate than that of Hemingway. 10. Correct Use of the Tenses Since a predicate verb must be used in a certain tense, we should learn to use the tenses correctly. Tenses tell t
43、he action of the verb takes place.,1) Simple Past Tense.过去时 When we talk about sth happened in the past, even a few minutes ago, we should use the simple past tense. For example: I went to the book exhibition yesterday. 2). Present Perfect现在完成时 When we talk about sth that happened in the past, but i
44、ts result remains at present, we should use the present perfect. For example: I have been to the book exhibition. 比较过去时与现在完成时 1）过去时表示过去某时发生的动作或单纯叙述过去的事情，强调动作；现在完成时为过去发生的，强调过去的事情对现在的影响，强调的是影响。2）过去时常与具体的时间状语连用，而现在完成时通常与模糊的时间状语连用，或无时间状语。,举例： I saw this film yesterday. （强调看的动作发生过了。） I have seen this fil
45、m. （强调对现在的影响，电影的内容已经知道了。） She has returned from Paris. 她已从巴黎回来了。 She returned yesterday. 她是昨天回来了。 In the following sentences there are tense mistakes: We have revised our work plan last night. They changed their timetable and they are working according to it. This is his latest novel. Did you read i
46、t? We are going to the Great Wall. Did you ever go there?,The correct ones are as following: We revised our work plan last night. They have changed their timetable and they are working according to it. This is his latest novel. Have you read it? We are going to the Great Wall. Have you ever go there
47、? 3) Past Perfect Tense过去完成时 1概念：表示过去的过去,其构成是had +过去分词构成。 2用法 a. 在told, said, knew, heard, thought等动词后的宾语从句。 She said (that) she had never been to Paris,b. 状语从句 在过去不同时间发生的两个动作中，发生在先，用过去完成时；发生在后，用一般过去时。 When the police arrived, the thieves had run away. c. 表示意向的动词，如hope, wish, expect, think, intend,
48、mean, suppose等，用过去完成时表示“原本，未能“ We had hoped that you would come, but you didnt. 3 过去完成时的时间状语before, by, until , when, after, once, as soon as。 He said that he had learned some English before. By the time he was twelve, Edison had began to make a living by himself. Tom was disappointed that most of t
49、he guests had left when he arrived at the party.,4) Present Perfect Continuous现在完成进行时 1.表示从过去某时开始一直持续到现在的动作，并且还将持续下去。2.表示在说话时刻之前到现在正在进行的动作。基本表达式（I have been doing ） （一）表示从过去某时开始一直持续到现在的动作，并且还将持续下去。 The Chinese have been making paper for two thousand years. 中国有2000年的造纸历史。（动作还将继续下去） I have been learni
50、ng English since three years ago. 自从三年前以来我一直在学英语。（动作还将继续下去） （二）表示在说话时刻之前到现在正在进行的动作。,We have been waiting for you for half an hour. 我们已经等你半个钟头了(人还没到，如同在电话里说的，还会继续等) Part 2. Coordination and Subordination When we mention two or more things or ideas of equal importance, we often use coordinate clauses
51、joined with a coordinating conjunction( and, but, or, nor, yet, so, for). This form or method is called coordination. When we express an important idea in a main clause and one or more less important ideas in subordinate clauses, we are using the method of subordination. It is clear that the choice of coordination or subordination is mainly decided by the relationship between the ideas to be expressed.,
