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类型英文段落写作训练[1].doc

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    1、1英文段落写作训练怎样写好英语段落段落是文章的缩影。写好了段落,就能比较成功地写出较好的文章。经过中学英语基础阶段的学习之后,大学英语的写作重点就从选词造句转移到了联句成段和联段成篇上。进行段落层次上的写作训练,是写好英语文章的关键一环。下面介绍的是段落结构。段落( paragraph )是由表达单一中心思想(controlling idea or central idea )的一组句子(包括主题句 topic sentence,推展句 supporting sentences 及结论句 concluding sentence)构成,是文章结构的基本独立单位。本讲我们将就主题句和中心思想这两个

    2、方面展开讨论。主题句与推展句 1 主题句主题句(topic sentence )是表达段落主题的句子。它用以概括段落大意,要求全段其他文字都围绕它展开。请看下例:My mother has passed along to me certain rules for getting along with others. Dont argue with parents; they will think you dont love them. Dont argue with children; they will think themselves victimized. Dont argue with

    3、 spouses; they will think you are a tiresome mate. Dont argue with strangers; they will think you are not friendly. My mothers rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Dont argue.主题句中提出的 “certain rules“ 指的是什么?展开句中通过四个 “Dont argue -“ 逐一加以交代。从结构来看,这是一个比较典型的段落,它包括了主题句,推展句和结论句(即本段中的末句) 。 11 主题句的位置

    4、主题句通常放在段落的开端,其特点是开门见山地摆出问题,然后加以详细说明。其作用是使文章的结构更清晰,更具说服力,便于读者迅速地把握主题和想象全段的内容。主题句可以放在段中起到承上启下的作用,或放在段尾起概括全段的作用。但初学者比较难于掌握,因而在四级考试中,考生应尽量采用将主题句放在段落开头的写作手法。例 1: Our life today depends very much on energy. In towns and in villages, on farms and in factories, machines have made life easier than it used to

    5、 be. The machines use energy, and energy is needed for heating, lighting, communications, carrying goods - everything. Factories and industrial plants use a great deal of energy to make the things that we use and buy and sell.2这段文字所讲的主要是能源问题。第一句就概括性地提出“我们目前的生活很大程度上依赖于能源”。而随后出现的三句都是具体事例,对第一句进行说明和论述。我

    6、们可以断定第一句为该段的主题句(斜体部分) 。 例 2: (主题句)No one can avoid being influenced by advertisements. (推展句 1)Much as we may pride ourselves on our good taste, we are no longer free to choose the things we want, for advertising exerts a subtle influence on us. (推展句 2)In their efforts to persuade us to buy this or t

    7、hat product, advertisers have made a close study of human nature and have classified all our little weakness.以上这段由三句话组成。第一句是主题句,直截了当指出无人不受广告影响这个主题,接着列举两个推展句对其补充和支持,指出我们已无法自由选择所需的商品,理由是广告商已仔细研究了我们的心理,并完全掌握了我们的弱点。句子衔接自然,步步紧扣主题。12 如何写好主题句中的关键词段落的主题句对主题的限定主要是通过句中的关键词来表现的。关键词要尽量写得具体些。对“具体”的要求包括两个方面:一是要具体

    8、到能控制和限制段落的发展;二是要具体到能说明段落发展的方法。准确地把握关键词是清楚地表达段落主题、写好段落主题句的重要前提之一。在上面的例 1,例 2 中,主题句的关键词分别为:depends very much on energy; no one can avoid being influenced. 我们再看下列例句:原句 1: He can fix a bicycle himself.斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。但它只是限制了段落发展的部分内容,并没有告诉读者该用哪种方法展开,是用因果关系法还是用分类法?修正:He can fix a bicycle himself in severa

    9、l simple steps. 修正:There are several reasons why he can fix a bicycle himself.原句 2: She tries to improve her looks.斜体部分应为主题句中的关键词。她试着改变她面容的理由是什么?或者她采取什么方法来改善呢?我们无法从关键词中清楚得知。修正:She tries many ways to improve her looks. 修正:There are some reasons why she tries to improve her looks。1.3 如何写好主题句的中心思想主题句由两

    10、部分组成,即主题(topic)和中心思想(controlling idea) 。中心思想的作用是导向(control)和制约(limit)。我们前面谈到的关键词就反映了中心思想。所谓导向就是规定段落的发展脉络,所谓制约就是限制主题的覆盖范围,两者不可分割。没有导向,内容就会离题或偏题;没有制约,内容就可能超出一个段落所能容纳的范围。对于初学写作的人来说, “导向” 的重要性容易理解,但如果由他们自己来构思一个主题句,就可能忽3视“制约 ”这一面。例如:There are two ways in which one can own a book. The first is the propert

    11、y right you establish by paying for it, just as you have made it a part of yourself and the best way to make yourself a part of it is by writing in it.本段的主题句如果没有 in which 引出的定语从句,那么 two ways 不仅不能起制约作用,而且也不能起导向作用,句子本身读起来也就使人觉得欠缺点什么。Exercise is beneficial to your heart. A 22-year study was conducted b

    12、y doctors in California. They found that people who work at physical jobs experience fewer heart attacks than other people. These active people work all the time at moderate speeds, their daily routine gives them an adequate amount of exercise and helps them stay in shape.“Exercise is beneficial“这是毫

    13、无疑义的。但主题句中如不加上 “to your heart“来加以 control 和 limit,那就流于空泛。因此,紧紧把握主题句中 controlling idea 的导向和制约作用,是短文写作成功关键之一。2推展句2.1 主要推展句主要推展句(major supporting statement)的主要特点是:围绕段落主题句展开的每一个推展句本身都不要求作进一步的说明或证明,句与句之间的关系是相互独立又是互相连接的。例 1:(主题句) There are several factors affecting climate. (推展句 1)One factor is the mount

    14、of sunlight received. (推展句 2)Altitude, or the height above sea level, also determines climate. (推展句 3)The oceans have an effect on the climate of adjacent land. (推展句 4)In addition, climate is influenced by the general circulation of the atmosphere.主题句指出影响气候的几个因素。然后用四个扩展句说明四种因素。第一种是太阳光的接收量,第二种是海拔高度,第

    15、三句和第四句分别是海洋和大气环流因素。2.2 次要推展句次要推展句(minor supporting statement)是指对主要推展句作进一步的事实分析和举例说明。它从属于某一个或某几个推展句。例 2:(主题句)I dont teach because teaching is easy for me. (主要推展句 1)Teaching is the most difficult of the various ways I have attempted to earn my living: mechanic, carpenter, writer. (主要推展句 2)For me, teac

    16、hing is a red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach profession. (次要推展句 1)Red-eye, because I never feel ready to teach no matter how late I stay up preparing. (次要推展句 2)Sweaty-palm, because Im always nervous before I enter the classroom, sure that I will be found out for the fool that I am. (次要推展句 3)Sinki

    17、ng-stomach, because I leave the classroom an hour later convinced that I was even more boring than usual.4从属于主要推展句 2 的三个次要推展句起着解释说明作用,分别解释 red-eye, sweaty-palm, sinking-stomach 的含义,这就更加形象生动地证明了 “teaching is not easy“ 这个主题。23 主要推展句与次要推展句的关系主要推展句与次要推展句的关系(relation)基本可以遵循下面的“ 三部分”(three-part) 规则。1每个主要推

    18、展句都应该是对主题句中表示主要思想的关键词的直接、明确的说明。2每个次要推展句都应该说明它的主要推展句。3含有讨论说明或分析的问题通常既要有主要推展素材,又要有次要推展素材。24 写好推展句的方法主题句及关键词确定后,开始选择和主题有关的信息和素材。实质上,针对关键词测试每一个所选择的素材就是一个分类的过程。有一种常用的方法就是句子展开前加以设问,然后解答,即设问解答(why-because)的方法。下面我们通过举例来看一看这种分类过程是如何完成的。例 3:假设 (suppose) Topic sentence: English is an international language.设问(

    19、why) Why can we say English is an international language?解答(because)Because: English is spoken by 段落的特点一般来说,段落主要由三部分组成,即主题句、的扩展句和结尾句。主题句是篇章的核心,它表明作者的态度、的观点、的意图等,同时反映了段落的中心思想。主题句应具备:一是明确的观点,二是有一定的概括性,能用其它句子来解释、的描述、的分析等。扩展句主要围绕着主题句进行叙述,说明或论述等。扩展句必须明确、的具体。总结句指用一句话将某一主旨进行归纳总结或概括,有时还起承上启下的作用。总结句需要与主题呼应,引

    20、发读者对段落主题的进一步认识。总之,篇章的主题必须统一,内容完整、的结构连贯,长度适度。段落的发展段落的扩展对构成一篇文章,展示文章的主题,有着举足轻重的作用。常用的方式有:1、排列顺序:既按照内容的主次、的时间的先后或位置的先后来进行论证,陈述或解释。常用的词语有:firstfirstly, secondsecondly, furthermore, finally, above all, first and most important, to begin start with, in the second place, moreover, to conclude, next,then, a

    21、fterward lastly, in the end, eventually52、比较和对比:一般来说,比较包括相同点和相异点。对比则仅指相异点。常见的词及词组有:in comparison(with), likewise, similarly, in the same way, equally, but, in contrast Withto, instead,conversely, on the contrary, inby contrast, while,Correspondingly3、因果和推理:这种段落发展方式通常用于解释某件事发生的原因和结果。经常用到的因果关系的动词和动词词组

    22、有:cause, produce, lead to, bring about, result from, be due to, have an effect on, result in因果关系的连接词有:due to,the fact that, for the simple reason, because (of), so that, consequently, hence, as a result, accordingly, therefore, so long as, so, thus, owing to, now that, foras, since4、举例:用实例来说明作者的观点是举

    23、例段落的发展方式。采用举例的方式,使文章内容更加充实,更富有内涵。常用于举例的词和词组有:such as, for example, for instance, as an illustration, to illustrate, a case in point, as follows, just as, just as, including, like短文短文的基本格式为:开始段,主体段和结论段。开始段是短文的中心,即主题。文章的开头段必须把握两个原则:表明文章的主题使文章的发展有所遵循;引发读者的兴趣、的使他确信值得读下去。主体段,即文章的发展,是文章的中心的发展,它以文章的开头为线索,准

    24、确,具体而充实地论证、的说明或分析文章的主题。主体段须遵循 1)文章的发展必须通畅、的自然。 2)文章的发展必须联贯统一。 3)文章的发展必须长短适度。结论段:同文章的开头和发展一样,文章的结尾也是写作成败的关键。它起着总结,概括全篇的作用,使主题更加鲜明,结构更加完美。Section I 补充主题句1)_, generally, the standard of education is higher. This is because colleges and universities have up-to-date equipment and other resources. Also, t

    25、eachers and lectures are highly-skilled professionals who are aware of all the latest developments in their fields of interest. A final point is that the overseas qualifications which a student obtains are valid usually anywhere in the world.2)_. These include defense capabilities and social securit

    26、y. Private enterprise and the profit motive should not form part of these essential services. On the other hand, some services could be provided by either governments or private groups or both. Education and health care are examples of such services. A government must provide at least a basic level

    27、of education and health care so all citizens call have access to them.3)_. Every day there are opportunities to practice listening to and speaking with Australians. Also, students can experience the culture first-hand, which is a great help when trying to understand the language. This is especially

    28、true if they choose to live with Australians, as part of a home-stay family, for example. Furthermore, if students attend a language school full-time, the teachers will be native speakers.64)_. Jose did not complete his mathematics yesterday. He spent the first fifteen minutes of the hour working on

    29、 the first of the ten examination problems. He spent other minutes doodling on his test paper.5)_. One example is the word “graft.“ The verb to graft first meant merely to work. English people once used the word in such expressions as “ Where are you grafting?“, meaning “ Where are you working?“. Fr

    30、om this perfectly respectable meaning, the word has gradually changed. Today graft refers to illegal gains won by dishonest politicians. Section II 重组下面的段落6. Certainly TV can be a powerful educational tool. People can learn about situations and problems far away, and begin to understand different cu

    31、ltures. Many informative documentaries about nature, news, and social issues are made now, and these can stimulate people to action. People in isolated areas can know for themselves what is happening in the world. This gives them the power to make their own decisions and form their own opinions.7. I

    32、n my opinion, television is the most important technological development. Nowadays almost everyone in the world has access to TV. Television has caused significant changes in family life and education. Some of these changes have been positive while others have been negative.8. However, the changes h

    33、ave not all been positive. Before television was widely available, families spent more time together talking and playing games. They seemed much closer to each other than modem families.9. To sum up, I feel that, overall, there are strong positive effects of TV in terms of its education role, but it

    34、 has in may ways altered people and families in a negative sense.10. Also, the fact is that people waste a lot of time watching poor quality programs which do not have a positive influence. People get a bad impression of the real world from such programs. Furthermore, TV is sometimes used to deliber

    35、ately misinform people; for example when it is used to as a propaganda tool by governments.Section III 根据所给出的主题句写出支持句11. The most obvious advantage to overseas university study is real-life use of a different language.12. For the individual office worker, telecommuting would mean spending more time

    36、at home.13. The younger generation is essentially different from the older generation.14. I like traveling by bus than traveling by airplane for three reasons.Section IV 用适当的副词或连词填空Text 17Teachers of foreign languages should be extremely well-qualified in order to carry out their duties properly. 15

    37、)_, a teacher should possess a minimum of a graduate degree from a certified education school or institute if he is to teach high school or below. Besides the academic degree, teachers should not consider teaching only as an occupation for earning money; they should also be interested in teaching. I

    38、t was 16)_ necessary that teachers be knowledgeable in their major fields, 17)_ they should further more be skillful as well. 18)_ the language teacher must know the target language well enough to be imitated by his students. A teacher should 19)_ know the linguistic facts of the language of the stu

    39、dents in order to understand problems they will have in learning the target language, 20)_ the teacher must be familiar with audio-lingual techniques. Knowing all this will help the students to learn correctly and quickly.Text 221)_ studying too much may be harmful to students. 22)_, many teachers e

    40、xpect their students to do more work than they can handle. 23)_, parents do not realize that pressuring their children to study hard than called for can injure their childrens health. 24)_ most parents know what growing boys and girls need relaxation as well as exercise, 25) _ many students have no

    41、choice but to burn the candle at the both ends in order to get good grades and please their parents, but a physically weaker or socially deprived child may not be able to keep up with such a hurried pace. Accordingly, this pressure to study in excess of what is required. 1) University Students Like

    42、Reading Newspapers in English Dear Editor: I am a student at Renmin University of China in Beijing. As a regular who goes to the university librarys newspaper room, I have discovered that many students like reading newspaper in English, especially China Daily. The reason that China Daily is popular

    43、among students is not difficult to explain. A major characteristic of China Daily is the conciseness of its articles. Most of the articles are brief, clearly written and informative. Many students are busy with their studies and dont have much spare time. However, by reading China Daily, readers can

    44、 get up-to-date news about China and the world and enhance their reading capabilities at the same time and, more importantly, it doesnt cost them a lot of time. In this sense, China Daily is providing a sort of “fast-food“ to its readers. Furthermore, China Daily also helps its readers improve their

    45、 writing skills. For those students who find English compositions difficult, articles on China Daily serve as perfect examples. Many fellow students told me that they had learned a lot from China Daily about China and the world. As a result they also improved their reading and writing and got high m

    46、arks in English exams. Yours Sincerely, Lin Weiying 82) Chinas Most Famous Symbol in Need Of Help Years ago, walking the Great Wall in the Beijing region was like no other experience in China. It was peaceful; there were no coke cans or mineral water bottles to spoil the view-it was quite simply the

    47、 world s most spectacular open air museum. How things have changed! There are now cans and bottles, and sometimes much worse. While I used to spend most of recreational time climbing the Great Wall, I have found myself spending an increasing amount of time cleaning up the wall. In the last 18 months

    48、 I have organized four Great Wall clean-up activities, mobilizing around 350 people to collect garbage. I ask myself, why is the Great Wall becoming such a dump? Litter was not a problem at in the 1980s, because packagers of foods and drinks used traditional materials that were biodegradable or retu

    49、rnable. Now, as the market economy has expanded, consumption has boomed. In everyday life, plastic bottles, metal cans, foils and cellophane are widely used as disposable packaging materials. Increased mobility as the result of mushrooming private car ownership has also fueled the widespread use and abuse of disposable packaging. Viewing this serpent of stone snaking across the mountains north 0f Beijing, I know th

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