1、Lesson16 characteristics common 所有道路使用者的共同特征Much of the material here relates to car drivers, since their behavior is such an important factor in accidents.这里的许多特点与司机有关，因为他们的行为时事故中如此重要的元素（要素)1 Age and sex 年龄和性别Age certainly influences accident risk. Judged by the casualties per head of population, y
2、oung people are more likely to be involved in accidents, whether as pedestrians, drives or cyclists, than middle-aged people. At least some part of the increased accident risk in young road users is due to lack of experienced. the accident rate for newly qualified car drivers in their first year of
3、driving has been found to be higher than for experienced drivers, particularly at night; young drivers did best in driving tests but also had the highest accident rates. Over 70 percent of motorcyclists injured in one sample of accidents were found to be learners.年龄当然影响事故的风险性。由人均事故率中可判断，相对于中年人，年轻人-无
4、论是作为行人驾驶员还是骑行者-更容易陷入交通事故中。至少一部分的年轻人涉及的不断增加的事故风险是由经验不足所致。新获得驾证的驾驶员在第一年的驾驶中比有经验的司机有更大的事故率，夜间尤甚。年轻人的确在驾照考试中做的最好，可是在事故率中也排名靠前。在一次抽样事故调查中发现 70%的机动车伤害都是初学者引起The driving behavior of men women car divers has been the subject of an investigation by the transport and road research laboratory. Storie found no
5、significant difference between the sexes with regard to being at fault in accidents, but men and women were found to drive differently. Women failed to see hazards more frequently, were less skilful and less able to execute difficult manoeuvres, while men were more likely to drive too fast, overtake
6、 improperly and be under the influence of alcohol. 男女司机的驾驶行为已成为交通与道路研究所展开的调查项目之一。史道瑞发现：对于在事故中是否出错，性别没有明显差异，但男女驾驶员的驾驶却不同。妇女不能看到危险情况居多，较不熟练，进行困难操作的能力不足，而男人则更可能会超速行驶和不恰当的超车，且易受酒精影响。2Medical factors 身体素质Medical factors have not been shown to play an important role in accidents, and all forms of sudden i
7、llness are probably responsible for about or two accddents in 1000 .Heart diseasae accounts for about one-sixth or one-seventh of these .Epilepsy is the major cause of suddeb collapse ,and any medcal condition which can cause collapse when driving is ragarde as a bar to obtaining a driving license .
8、A comprehensive review of medical condition which are factors in accdents is given in Medical Aspects of Fitness to Drive.身体素质并没有在事故中扮演重要角色，而且所有的急性病症引发的事故只占千分之一二。其中心脏病占有 1/6 或 1/7。癫痫是导致暴跌的主要原因，其他可能导致行驶中暴跌的身体情况被认为是获得驾证的障碍。 身体素质方面对驾驶的适用性给出了身体状况的全面检查是交通事故的要素。3Reaction Times 反应时间The reaction times of ro
9、ad user to potential accident situation are often quoted .In this lesson ,reaction time will be taken the total time from the instant when the situation sevelops and its image falls on the reaction of the eye to the time when action is taken by the road user. It is therefore made up of the percrptio
10、n time (the time taken to recognise a sitation ),the decision time (the time to decide on action),and the time taken to put that action into practice .驾驶员对潜在事故状况的反应时间经常被引用。在这一节中，反应时间将被认定为从情况发生且投入到视网膜上的那一刻到驾驶员做出反应的整个时间。因此它是由感受时间（意识到状况的时间）决定时间（决定行动的时间）和把行动付诸实际的时间。The time to racet to an artificially p
11、roduced signal such as a flashing light lies between 0.25 and 0.6 sec.;it is least for young persons and increases with age.Since most accdent situation develop over a period of second ,reaction times thus measured are generally considered to be of minor importance compared with those in real accide
12、nts where perception and decision times are usually much longer and less dependent on age .对于人工产生的如闪烁灯那样的信号，反应时间在 0.5-0.6 秒之间。青年人反应时间最短，并随年龄增长而增长。忧郁大多数事故情况在持续几秒后形成，因此与实际事故中的反应时间相比，测得的反应时间一般被认为意义不大，实际事故中的觉察和决策的时间通常长得多，而且与年龄的关系较小4 Alcohol and Drugs 酒精和毒品Alcohol has a marked effect on accident risk in
13、all road users;the role of drugs has not yet been quantified, and research on the subject continues. Alcohol in the blood or urine is measured in milligrams (mg) of alcohol per 100 milliliters(ml) of blood or urine;alcohol in the breath is measured in micrograms(ug) per 100ml.The Road Safety Act of
14、1967 imposed a legal limit of 80mgml in blood or 107mgml in urine; the Act of 1981 also specifies a limit of 35ugml in breath. In May 1983, new legislation was introduced ,aimed at increasing the effectiveness of the 1981 Act. After drinking, the blood alcohol level rises gradually to a maximum, whi
15、le at the same time it is being eliminated, As a rough guide , an 11 stone man drinking one pint of beer (referred to as 2 units) quickly on an empty stomach will raise the alcohol content of his blood to a peak of 30mg100ml after about an hour ; it will then reduce at the rate of about 1 unit (half
16、 a pint of beer) per hour , it must be emphasized that this is only a rough indication of what is likely to happen, Rates of absorption vary so much with type of drink , how long it takes to drink, whether food has been eaten, body weight and fatty tissue that the level at any time is uncertain.酒精对所
17、有的驾驶员在事故危险上有明显的影响；毒品的角色尚未确定，对他的研究还在进行中。血液或尿中酒精浓度的测量标准时每 100 毫升血或尿中酒精毫克量；在呼吸道中的测量是每 100 毫升气体中的微克。1967 年道路安全法规强制法律规定血中 80mg/ml 为标准；1981年该法规也规定了呼吸道中 35ug/ml 为标准。1983 年 5 月，新法规颁布，旨在加强 1981年法规的有效性。饮酒后血液中酒精含量逐渐增大到一个最大值，然后逐渐消除。大体来说，一个 11 英石的男人空腹喝一品脱（约两个单位）酒会在一小时后血中酒精浓度上升到 30mg/ml 的高峰；并在随后以每小时一个单位（半品脱）的速度减少
18、。必须强调的是这只是很可能发生的大致迹象。吸收速率是那样强烈的随着酒的种类，饮酒过程长短，是否吃过食物，体重和脂肪组织而变化，以至于在任何时候（血液中酒精）含量都是不确定的。The marked increase in accident risk with concentration of alcohol in the blood of car drivers is shown in fig16.1. on average the risk of accident involvementincreases sharply beyond the legal limit of 80 mg/ml,
19、but it has also been found that marked difference exist between those most susceptible and those least susceptible to alcohol ,nevertheless, the driving performance of all drivers is impaired by alcohol.The 1967 Act had an immediate effect in reducing accidents and in reducing the percentage of fata
20、lly injured drivers with blood alcohol levels over 80mg/100ml,in 1967 it was 27 percent ,and in the following year it dropped to 17 percent.in subsequent years the reduction declined, until in 1976 a new peak was reached above the pre-legislation level, followed by a downward trend reaching the pre-
21、legislation level again in 1980.an analysis made in 1975 of results up to 1973 revealed a marked difference between older and younger drivers. the old drivers still seemed to respect the legislation, while the incidence of high drinking levels among younger drivers increased above pre-legislation le
22、vels, resulting in the observe overall increase in blood alcohol levels in fatalities. Similar effects of age were observed n 1980. The same investigation indicated that although the numbers of drivers killed and injured in 1973 had rerurned to the pre-legislation level the total number of casualtie
23、s in greatBritain both killed and injured still showed a slight reduction of perhaps 2 or 3 percent.驾驶员血液中酒精含量与事故危险的显著上升在图 16.1 中可看到。平均说来，当超过80mg/ml 的法定限制时，事故危险性急剧增大，但也发现:对酒精最敏感的驾驶员与最不敏感的驾驶员之间存在明显区别；此外，酒精会削弱所有驾驶员的驾驶能力。1967 年的法规对减少事故和血液酒精含量超过 80mg/ml 的致命受伤人员比例有明显效果：1967 年为 27%，在随后的一年降到 17%。在接下来的几年中持续
24、降低，知道 1976 年一个新的峰值超过颁布法规之前的水平。紧随着的是 1980 年的下降趋势又回到了法规水平.1973 年到 1975 年的一项分析结果表明年轻人与大龄驾驶者有明显区别：年长的驾驶员（30 岁以后）似乎仍然遵循该法规，而年轻驾驶员中大量饮酒者多于法规颁布以前，因此导致总体死亡者血液中酒精含量的总体提高。1980 年同样发现了年龄的类似影响。该调查同时声明虽然 1973 年受伤或死亡的人数回到法规颁布前的水平，但英国已统计的伤亡人数仍有 2%到 3%的轻微下降。In spite of the declining effect of the legislation after a
25、n initial period ,estimates made by the transport and road research laboratory indicated that in the first four years it had probably resulted in savings of about 4000 deaths and over 35000 serious injuries.The risk of a pedestrian being killed in a road accident also increases with blood alcohol co
26、ncentration .in adult pedestrians of both sexes the risk of fatality has been found to increase rapidly above a blood alcohol; concentration of 120mg/100mg.in a sample of 344 adults,27 percent of males and 7 percent of the female fatalities were found to exceed this level .as would be expected ,most
27、 of the alcohol related accidents occurred in the late evening .in the hours 23:00-02:59,51 percent of the victims had blood alcohol levels of 150mg/100mlor more 尽管在法规颁布后的最初一段时间有下降趋势的影响，交通与道路研究所的估算表明在开始的 4 年里大约减少了 4000 起死亡事故和超过 35000 起重伤事故。行人在事故中死亡的危险性也随血液酒精浓度而升高。成年人无论性别，在血液酒精浓度超过 120mg/ml 以上时受到致命伤害
28、危险迅速增加。在 344 成人的抽样中，27%的男性和 7%的女性伤员都超过了上述标准。就像人们认为的那样，大部分与酒精有关的事故都发生在午夜。在晚上 23：00-02:59,51%的受害者血液酒精浓度都达到 150mg/ml 或者更多5.Attitudes 态度There is evidence to suggest that people drive as they live. people who engage in anti-social activities in other areas of life(such as those with criminal conviction)
29、are also more likely to be involved in traffic accidents. some evidence suggests that fluctuations in personal adjustment,caused by events such as bereavement,or the stress of divorce proceedings, may temporarily change a persons likelihood of accident involement.thereare,however,at any one time, re
30、latively few such people,so that prevention of these accident-evev if it were possible-will not change the accident picture substantially.有证据表明人们的驾驶方式与生活方式一致 。在生活其他领域从事反社会活动的人（例如罪犯）更容易陷入交通事故中。一些证据提出个人适应性的由于失去亲人.离婚压力等造成的情绪波动，更可能临时地改变一个人在交通事故中处理问题的可能性。然而，在任何时候这类人都较少，所以即使这种事故的预防成为可能，也不能对事故的形势产生实质性改变。6.
31、Accident Proneness 事故倾向A prevalent theory of accident proneness is that some individuals, because of certain reasonably stable characteristics,have a greater disposition than the average driver towards having accidents;statistical evidence indicates that some people are involved in more accidents th
32、an would be expected if accidents were distributed randomly. however, it has not yet been possible to identify attributes or characteristics in the driving population that can be used to distinguish between accident prone people and safe drivers.The termaccident proneness is also used to suggest tha
33、t a small proportion of drivers-those who are accident prone-are responsible for a sizeable proportion of accidents, but it has been shown that the proportion of accidents in which accident repeaters are involved is relatively low and that the gerat majority of accidents occurring in any one year ar
34、e first accidents. the cost effectiveness of introducing safety measures based on the methodology of accident proneness is therefore unlikely to be worthwhile compared with other measures based on engineering and the reduction of human error.一般理论上的事故倾向是指某些个人的特定性质，有着比普通司机更高发生事故的可能性。统计表明：假如事故是随机分布的，某些人卷入事故比预期的更多。然而，迄今还不能确定驾驶人群的特性来区分有事故倾向的人和安全驾驶员。事故倾向论同时指出一小部分人-事故倾向者-对大部分事故负有责任，但他同时指出哪些重复发生在一个人上的事故只占很小比例，大部分事故都是在当年第一次发生.因此，相比之下，基于事故倾向性方法论而引进的安全措施有效性的付出，似乎并不比其他基于工程学和认为错误减少的方法更为有价值。
