1、Development of Meaning Note3 aspects(1) cause(a) linguistic (i) discrimination of synonyms, i.e., sceorfanto starve; to die to die(ii) ellipsis, i.e., a taxi caba taxi; telephone phone(iii) analogy: to get grasp catch(b) extra-linguistic(i) making new words(ii) borrowing(iii) applying a new meaning
2、to an old word(2) nature of semantic change(a) metaphor(b) metonymy(c) aristotle(d) rhetoric Metaphorical revolution In 1986, Lakoof struggles to syntax.Metaphor Metonymy(a)similarity of meaning(b) It creates new image and notion(a) Contiguity of meaning (associations)(b) Sometimes associations are
3、very clear.1. appearance (form), i.e.,(i) mouth of the river(ii) bridge of the nose(iii) leg of the chair1. part for the whole, i.e., big wig, motor,(P.S.: important synecdoche )2. temperature, i.e., boiling hot. 2. animal for its fur sable3. position, i.e., head of the page; foot of the page. 3. na
4、mes of organs to characterize person, i.e., Brain, head.4. color, i.e., violet, lilic. 4. container for things contained, i.e., pot is boiling.5. functions( of use), i.e., hands of the clock. 5. things contained for a container, i.e. school applauded.6. movement, i.e., foxtrot, caterpillars 6. mater
5、ial for a produce, i.e., iron, glass.7. names of animals for human qualities, i.e., cat, fox. 7. author of his works, i.e., Confucius, Shakespeare.8. name for countries (geographic name ) for things or produced, i.e., china, morocco9.the name of inventor, i.e., Macintosh, Sandwich.Figurative meaning
6、 direct meaningFigures of speechThe similarity of functionsTest1. The problem of the change of meaning has 3 aspects:(a) causes of semantic change, (b) nature of semantic change, (c) results of semantic change.2. By extra-linguistic causes different changes in a nations social life, in its culture,k
7、nowledge, technology, arts, changes in all spheres of human activities are meant.3. There are 3 ways to build up new names for new notions: (a) making new words, (b) borrowing foreign words, and (c) applying some old word to a new object or notion development of meaning.4. Transference of meaning ba
8、sed on their resemblance or similarity of meanings is called as metaphor.5. Transference of meaning based on the contiguity of meanings is called metonymy.6. Simple metaphors can be classified according to the physical properties on the similarity of which they are based:(a) appearance or form: brid
9、ge (of the human nose), nut (head), arm (branch) of a tree;(b) temperature: boiling hot (about a man);(c) position: the head and the foot of a page;(d) color (of some flowers and shrubs); lilac, violet;(e)function of use: hand (of watches and clocks);(f) movement: caterpillar tractor, foxtrot, albat
10、ross (airplane).(g) names of animals and birds are used metaphorically to denote human qualities: a bear - “a clumsy or ill-mannered person”; a cat “a spiteful woman”; a snake “a sneaky and untrustworthy person”.7. Contiguity of meaning can be of different kinds:(a) a part is made to stand for the w
11、hole or the whole for a part: a gray beard “an old man”, a motor “a motor-car”, a big-wig -“an important person”; (b) names of different animals are used to mean their furs: fox, sable, hare;(c) names of different organs are used to characterize some phenomena: a head “a leader”, a brain “an intelle
12、ctual person”;(d) names of containers are used to denote things contained: The pot is boiling. Have another glass;(e) names of things contained are used instead of the containers: a school - for “a school building”, University - for “a University building”;(f) names of places are used to denote what
13、 is going on in these places or people who are there: The whole city supported him;(g) names of the material may be used instead of the product: iron - “a metal/ an appliance used to press fabric”, glass - “a material/ objects made of glass”;(h) names of the author is used for his works: Show me Sha
14、kespeare, please;(i) name of passion is used for its object: My love!(j) names of inventors are used instead of what they have invented: mackintosh “a waterproof overcoat” after Mackintosh, sandwich (a lords name), cf., watt, colt, etc;(k) names of countries, cities and towns, islands, and mountains are used to denote products manufactured there: China, Holland, Morocco; Havana, Tokay, Pembroke; Canary, Sardines; Chaviot.8. The simplest case of metonymy is called synecdoche