1、写作辅导,Part Three 组段与谋篇,写作中的段落,1. 段落的组成 通常情况下，一个段落由三部分组成：1) 主题句（Topic Sentence）:点出段落的主题（谈论什么）。 2) 扩展句（Developing Sentence）:说明和支持主题。 3) 结尾句（Concluding Sentence）:得出结论。,2. 主题句 每个段落只能有一个主题，即是只能有一个主题句。主题提出后需要很多结构严谨的句子来支持和说明，称为扩展句。最后得出一个结论，并用一个结尾句表达。参看下面段落：（主题句）Slavery in the United States existed almost un
2、changed for 250 years.(扩展句1)During this time, most slaves were not allowed to marry or to raise families.(扩展句2) Usually they were not allowed to learn to read.(扩展句3) It was very dangerous for a slave to travel, since even free Negroes could be kidnapped and sold at any time. (结尾句)Under these conditi
3、ons, it was almost impossible for them to organize to help each other.,My mother has told certain rules for getting along with others. Dont argue with parents; they will think you dont love them. Dont argue with children; they will think themselves victimized. Dont argue with spouses; they will thin
4、k you are a tiresome mate. Dont argue with strangers; they will think you are not friendly. My mothers rules, in fact, can be summed up in two words: Dont argue.Perhaps more than any other people Americans have come to depend on their cars. The family car has been a common thing since early 20th cen
5、tury, and it has changed American life. Many people have moved outside of the large cities to the suburbs. Some Americans spend two hours a day or more in their cars going to work and home again. Cars have become the means of transportation for most Americans.,Similarly, in order to write successful
6、 answers to essay questions on history or anthropology examinations, a student must arrange the relevant facts and opinions according to some accepted pattern of paragraph structure. And certainly when a student writes a book report for English, or a critiques for politics studies, or a term paper f
7、or sociology, style and organization are often as important as content. Clearly, the ability to write well organized, concise paragraphs and essays is essential to a students success in almost all university courses.,2.1 写好主题句的宏观方法：1) 主题句要概括一定内容，不要空泛，否则扩展句将难以说明和支持它，例如： 空泛：English language is very im
8、portant. 概括：English language is very important in ourdaily life. 空泛：The Olympic Games are exciting. 概括：In the Olympic Games the football teams from many countries compete intensely.,2) 尽量使用简单句或简洁明了的句子：简洁：Collecting stamps is her hobby. 复杂: She likes collecting stamps which is her hobby.简洁: I enjoyed
9、 watching Gone with the wind verymuch. 复杂：Gone with the wind was a good film which I enjoyed watching very much.,3) 主题句应该做到句子完整和表达的主题思 想完整：不完整：How to write a composition. 完整：How to write a composition is not an easything to talk about. 不完整：If the weather was fine. 完整：If the weather was fine, we woul
10、d have had agood time.,4) 写好主题句中的关键词关键词是直接表达主题的词汇，它决定段落的内容和展开的方法，引导整个段落的发展，例如： There are several ways to boil the water. The task can be finished in three steps. There is a new method to reduce the cost.,3. 拓展句扩展句紧扣主题句中的关键词而展开，句子与句子之间逻辑清楚，上下转承结合得当，简明扼要，重点突出。一般来说，每个自然段除了主题句与结尾句之外，还包含了36个扩展句。 Nowadays
11、, the computer has found wide applications in many areas. It is used not only in calculations, but also engineering project, designing, language learning, etc. In todays society, computers can be seen working for us almost everywhere, in shops, banks, post offices, schools, hospitals and so on. Comp
12、uters have even entered most families. Children can learn various subjects on computers, and parents can enjoy some entertainment from the computers, too.,一旦定下了主题和关键词，作者便按照自己的思路来组织段落中的句子，句子之间要具有连贯性，就必须由一系列的逻辑关系构成，例如：并列关系，因果关系，递进关系，转折关系，解释关系，概括关系，顺序关系，让步关系，对照比较关系，转换关系等等，这些逻辑关系可由一系列的过渡词来完成。过渡词在句子与句子之间
13、、段落与段落之间起到承上启下的作用，使句子或段落之间的衔接自然、连贯，逻辑合理，结构严谨，故极为重要。构成时间关系的过渡词有：first, in the first place, since then, thereafter, there fore, lately, later, meanwhile, at last等。构成空间关系的过渡词有：before, behind, below, between, beyond, farther, in front of , near to, next to, over, under, up, close to等。,3.1 写好拓展句的注意事项 1）避
14、免写出与主题不相关的句子。 There are several ways to improve our English writing skills and keeping a diary in English is surely one of them. Compared with other forms of writing, it is shorter and takes less time. My mother advised me to write diary when I was very young. It can help us cultivate the habit of t
15、hinking in English. If we can keep this practice, we will gradually learn how to express ourselves in English.,2） 混合使用简单句、并列句、复合句和短语等。如果段落中都是一种结构的句子，虽然都能支持主题句，但内容仍读起来单调。句式有变化，文章读起来才有活力，令人回味。 There are also many quite, private things that I enjoy doing. (主从复合句)I would spend a whole day reading a book
16、, and I sometime stay up late at night reading a good novel.(并列句)When I am tired of physical activities, I may find a good movies or a light TV program very entertaining.(主从复合句) In short, I like to do many different kinds of things, depending on the mood I am in and the kind of people I am in and th
17、e kind of people I am around.(简单句，分词短语作状语),3) 定义法当段落的主题阐述“是什么”（What is）时，便可用定义法。定义法用一段话来解释说明某事物的性质和特征等，定义的对象可以是一个抽象的概念或具体的事物，包括性质、特征、结构、用途、行为、原理、来源等。例如：What is honesty? Honesty means speaking the truth and being fair and upright in act. Honesty is a good virtue. He who lies cheats is dishonest. Thos
18、e who gain fortunes, not by hard labor, but by other means are dishonest. 定义法常用法表达方法有： what is / to be defined as / to refer to/ the definition of is / to be used to describe/ in a very real sense/ in a limited sense/ this is/ this means/ be explained/ state that/ in other words/ namely等。,4) 因果法 当段落
19、的主题要解释“为什么”（Why）时，便可采用“因果法”。因果法根据事物的原因推导出来结果，它以事实和证据为根据，前后过程合乎逻辑和常理。 Health is a condition of wisdom, and a sign of cheerfulness.(果)If a man is in poor health, he will have many troubles and suffer a great deal.(因)He has to spend much time and money to go to a hospital for examinations and treatment
20、.(因)In addition, his relatives and friends have to take care of him,(因)In this sense, poor health brings trouble to others as well as to the patient himself.(因)As we know, happiness and success depend on achievements and progress.(因)Good health is one of the many factors that lead to achievement and
21、 success, and the basis of them is health.(因),因果法常用法表达方法有：because/ since/ as/ seeing that/ the reason whyis because of/ on account of/ due to/ so/ thus/ hence/ therefore/ accordingly/ consequently/ so that/ as a result of/ in consequence of/ result in/ result from/ lead to/ soas to/ owing to/ to hav
22、e an effect on/ for the reason/ in this way等。,5) 比较与对比法当段落的主题要指出两件以上事物的相同或相异之处时，便可采用比较或对比的方法。 “比较”阐述所比对象的相似之处：“对比”阐述所比对象不同之处。比较和对比一般采用两种方法来组织：1）对两项或多项事的异同之处逐点进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，B1，A2，B2；A3，B3。2）对两项或多项事物的异同之处逐项进行比较对照，排列顺序为：A1，A2，A3; B1,B2,B3; 。,（1） 比较 Paragraph and Essay Despite their obvious difference
23、s in length, the paragraph and the essay are quite similar structurally. For example, the paragraph is introduced by either a topic sentence or a topic introducer followed by a topic sentence. In the essay the first paragraph provides introductory material and establishes the topic sentence. Similar
24、ly, the body of an essay consists of a number of paragraphs that expand and support the ideas presented in the introductory paragraph. Finally, a terminator-whether a restatement, conclusion, or observation-ends the paragraph. The essay, too, has a device which brings its ideas to a logically and ps
25、ychologically satisfying completion: the concluding paragraph. Although exceptions to these generalizations may be observed in modern creative writing, most well written expository paragraphs and essays are comparable in structure.本段文章对段落和文章在结构上相似之处作了细致的比较，方法为：A1，B1；A2，B2；A3，B3；。,（2）对比：There is an e
26、ssential difference between a news story, as understood by a newspaperman or a wire-service writer, and the newsmagazine story. The chief purpose of the conventional news story is to tell what happened. It starts with the most important information and continues into increasingly inconsequential det
27、ails, not only because the reader may not read beyond the first paragraph but because an editor working on galley proofs a few minutes before press time likes to be able to cut feely from the end of the story. A newsmagazine is very different. It is written to be read consecutively from beginning to
28、 end, and each of its stories is designed, following the critical theories of Edgar Allen Poe, to create one emotional effect. The news, what happened that week, may be told in the beginning, the middle, or the end ; for the purpose is not to throw information at the reader but to reduce him into re
29、ading the whole story, and into accepting the dramatic point being made. 本段文章就传统新闻报道和新闻杂志报道的不同之处进行了鲜明的对比，采用A1，A2，A3；B1，B2，B3；的方法。,比较和对比法常用的过渡词有：like/ likewise/ unlike/ similarly/ in the same way/ on the other hand/ compare with/ by comparison/ in contrast to/ on the contrary/ but/ despite/ yet/ inst
30、ead/ while/ whereas/ however/ nevertheless/ although/ even though/ conversely/ different from/ equally important/ in spite of/ instead/ in the same manner/ still等。,6) 举例或例证法 当段落的主题为一理论性论点时，就需要举例或例证来加以支持，以说服读者。举例和例证使抽象的概念具体化，而所举的事例也应该具有充分的说服力，同时逻辑严密。例如： In many countries cigarette smoking is restrict
31、ed in many ways. Take Britain for an example, cigarettes are not allowed to be advertised on TV or radio; the American government requires manufacturers to print the warning that smoking is dangerous to health on every package of cigarettes; in our country a regulation is being drafted banning the s
32、ale of tobacco products to people under eighteen. There is no doubt that the world-wide anti-smoking campaigns will make more and more people be aware of the danger of smoking and become conscious fighters for cleaner air.,There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For exa
33、mple, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the morning or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their inte
34、rests are ,people can easily find more than one sports that are suitable to them.,举例或例法常用的过渡词有： for example/ for instance/ for one thing/ for another/ to illustrate/ one example is/ to begin with/ first, second, furthermore, besides, in addition, moreover, finally, in conclusion, in summary/ also/ a
35、 case in point/ as an illustration/ incidentally/ namely/ that is等。,7) 分类法 按性质、特征、形态、功用、成因等等属性将某一种人或事物进行分类而发展段落的方法先由主题句提出分类，再由扩展句一一加以陈述和说明。例如：Examinations are of three kinds. One is the machine-scored “objective” type. In an objective test, the students answer questions by deciding on the best choic
36、e among a number of alternatives give. Another is the “completion” type. This kind of examination requires the students to add a word or phrase to a sentence. And the third type is essay examination, in which the students are asked to write a composition on a given topic. All these kinds of examinat
37、ions are designed to reveal what a student may have learned in any particular course.,分类法常用的过渡词用： to divideinto/ to classifyinto/ groupinto/ to fall into classes/ there arekinds (types, groups, classes, categories, sorts ) of/ according to/ in terms of/ depending on/ at the level of等。,4. 结论句结论句一般用来总
38、结段落的中心思想，将段落的内容进行归纳总结，引发读者对段落的进一步认识，同时在段落中起着段意收尾的工作。此外，段落结论句要简明扼要，并符合主题句的主旨，但不能简单的重复。There are many problems with advertisements. Sometimes, people consider them as bad things because many of the goods sound good but do not prove to be so. Some advertisements are rather confusing, and often deceive
39、consumers into buying goods of poor quality. The solution to these problems is that a necessary law should be worked out, otherwise, some advertisements will be harmful to the society.,英文写作中的篇章1. 英语文章的结构英语的整篇文章结构类似于中文中的支撑段（由主题句、拓展句和结论句构成）的结构，一般由以下三部分构成（主要针对说明文和议论文）引言段：说出文中的要点及核心问题正文段：围绕主题展开叙述和讨论结尾段：
40、对全文总结和概括,引言段（开场白）的写作技巧）用引语揭示文章的主要内容Hegel, the German philosopher, says, “We learn from history that men never learn anything from history.” This remark has been confirmed again and again by historical events, one of which is Hitlers invasion of the Soviet Union.,2) 利用指令情景“改写、扩写”2002年TEM4作文The Best W
41、ay to Keep Healthy指令如下：a) Nowadays people are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of health. b) And they have different ways to stay healthy. c) For example, some exercise everyday; others try to keep balanced diet. d) What do you think is the best way to stay healthy?针对作文指令的分析不难得出以下论点：a.
42、说明人们对健康越来越重视；b. 表明人们保持健康的不同方法；c. 要求考生表态，阐明自己的观点。Today, with the improvement of living standard, people attach more and more importance to health. They are trying to find various ways to keep healthy. Some do physical exercise every day, but others prefer keeping a balanced diet. As far as I am conce
43、rned, doing physical exercises is a better choice to stay healthy.,3) 主题法开门见山式开场白最简单直接的写法是在段落开始就直截了当表明自己的观点，然后对论点稍加解释说明，以便为下文发展做准备。The Best Way to Keep HealthyThere are various ways of keeping healthy, but sleep is definitely the basic element to stay fit. I have several reasons to support my view.,
44、4) 引言（数据、格言等）自己的观点Honesty: Is It Going Out of Style?According to a recent poll, 61 percent of American high school students have admitted cheating on exams at least once. It can be argues such a response may not mean much. After all, most students have been faced with the temptation to peek at a nei
45、ghbors test paper. And students can be hard on themselves in judging such behavior. However, there are other indications that high school cheating may be on the rise.,Travel Broadens Our EyesAs a Chinese old saying goes, traveling ten thousand miles and reading ten thousand books is the top ideal fo
46、r people. Travel does broaden our mind. It enables us to appreciate beautiful scenery, value the culture and customs of a people and learn the history.,5) 定义法通过对文章要讨论的主题，尤其是人们不太熟悉的主题进行释义来引出讨论Should Euthanasia be Advocated?Euthanasia, a quiet and easy death, or “mercy killing”, has become a heated to
47、pic among people recently. Many people applaud it and argue that euthanasia should be advocated in our society.,6) 对立法对立法指在文章的开头列举人们对所讨论的问题所持的不同观点，然后点处作者自己对这个问题的看法，此方法一般用于论述、说明相结合的题目中。My View on Easing School Childrens Study BurdenEver since the easing of school childrens study burden is advocated b
48、y educators. Some teachers and parents frown at it, saying that it will exert bad effects on the children. However, I think easing school childrens study burden will do good to school children both physically and mentally.,3. 如何结尾1) 阐明中心思想回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上，达到再次肯定和强调的效果。a. A sense of humor is really
49、 one of the keys to happiness. It gives zest to life to make it worth living.b. With all these benefits, it is no wonder that sports and games have now become more popular with people than ever.,2) 做出结论文章最后用几句话概括全文内容，并进一步肯定文章中心思想或作者观点。a. In conclusion, a good teacher-student relationship can be mutu
50、al beneficial. The students gain knowledge eagerly and enjoyable, and the teacher gains satisfaction from his job.b. On the whole there are more advantages than disadvantages in the use of TV. Yet different people may have different attitudes toward TV. But we must realize that television in itself is neither good nor bad. Its value to people and society depends on how we look at it.,
