1、1 写作教与学入手的四个方面 Mechanics of writing：标点符号、大小写、页面格式及基本的语法问题（如主谓一致问题等） ； From words to sentences (遣词造句); From paragraphs to whole compositions（段落及全文谋篇布局） ； Academic and practical writing2 英语段落的三个基本特质：（P81 Two basic qualities of effective paragraphs） 全段围绕一个中心思想展开（Unity） ； 句与句之间的联系与过渡要紧密、自然或合乎逻辑（Coherenc
2、e/Cohesion） ； 发展充分 （Well-developedness） 。也就是说，一个好的只有一个主题，所有句子在意义上始终保持统一，紧紧围绕这一主题展开；段落结构组织合理、顺畅，句与句之间的联接与过渡自然、顺理成章；整个段落能够充分地表达这一主题思想，内容上没有任何残缺。3 段落的结构与发展3.1 段落的结构段落是由若干个彼此关联的句子构成的，通常用以表达一个中心思想或者从一个角度对文章的主题进行阐述。因此，段落不能是一组句子的任意堆砌，而是遵循一定段落发展方法的。当然, 这并不是说，所有的段落都遵循着相同的、固定的模式。在读、写实践中，我们会遇到一些段落，只有一两句话，在文中起承
3、前启后的过渡作用或扮演导言或结束语的角色。但，我们遇到的大多数句子并不是这样，它们在内容上比较丰富，结构较为复杂。以下所讲，就是一般的英语段落的结构。结构完整的段落由三部分组成：主题句（Topic sentence）、发展句（Supporting sentences）和总结句（Concluding sentence）；一个段落的一般长度为：4-8 个句子请读下面这一段文字，注意其结构：Different people go to universities for different reasons. Some people go to a university for specialized
4、training. They go to learn about medicine or law or engineering or nursing and so on to prepare for particular jobs. Other people go to a university to learn as much as they can about the world and the people around themselves. Still others go to a university because they want the honor of a univers
5、ity degree. And, of course, there are some people who go to a university because they have nothing else to do. It is clear that different people expect different things from a university education.3.1.1 主题句主题句通常由主题和作者的观点两部分组成，作为段落传递信息的出发点，简明扼要地告诉读者段落的线索和范围。所以，写好主题句是写好一个段落的前提。另外，主题句的位置并不是固定不变的，它可以位于段
6、首，也可以位于段中、段尾。此外，有极少数情况下，段落没有主题句。3.1.2 发展句 发展句是用来支持或说明主题句的，是段落主题句的延伸和发展，起着辅助主题句、推展段落中心的作用，对主题句表达的中心思想或举例说明、或细致描写、或详细解释阐述和论证，使读者能够清晰地理解和信服地接受作者所表达的意思。发展句一般要具备这样的特点：（1）清晰、详实，有较强的说服力，能清楚地表达思想；（2）条理分明，脉络清晰。上一句要为下一句铺平道路，下一句是上一句的自然延伸，一步一步地论述或叙述主题。段落内容应该保持完整、统一，没有说明不足之处或多余冗长的细节。一个段落通常有若干个发展句。这些发展句可以处于同一个层次，
7、共同来为主题句服务；也可以在一级发展句之下用二级发展句来支持一级发展句，从而构成发展句之间的层次关系。但在段落中如果有多个不同层次的发展句时，必须要合理地安排它们，既要作到简洁清晰、意义连贯、合乎逻辑，又要作到层次分明并紧紧地围绕主题句，为主题句服务；同时还要注意一级发展句、二级发展句等和主题句之间的关系。一级发展句为主题句服务，二级发展句支持一级发展句来说明或论证主题句。(1)In rock music there is a distinct and almost overwhelming beat. (2)No single beat is characteristic of the mu
8、sic today. （3）But each song has an easily recognizable rhythm. (4)As you listen to a song, your foot usually starts to pick up the beat. (5)Before long, your entire body seems to be moving with it. （6）Your head pounds with the beat, and there is no room for thought. （7）Only the surge of the music is
9、 important. (8)In its own way, rock music is as dominant as the rock Gibraltar. Its message is an overgrowing emotional one.在这一段中，句（1）是段落主题句，点出本段主题思想，要说明“摇滚乐最突出的特点是其节奏” 。句（ 2）、（3）是一级发展句，对主题句进一步补充说明；而句（4）、（5）、（6）是二级发展句，从属于句（2），对句（2）起着补充、解释和说明的作用，更形象、生动地证明了主题句所表达的思想。这里，句（7）是总结句。3.1.3 总结句 总结句位于段落的末尾，在段
10、落中也起着非常重要的作用，用以对全段内容进行总结、归纳或提出结论性的观点。总结句常和主题句相呼应，以不同的形式再现主题，并与发展句相关联。但是并非任何段落都必须有总结句才算完整。有的段落，尤其是一些较短的段落中只有主题句没有总结句。A contract is an agreement which is enforceable by law. It can be long or short, formal or informal, simple or complicated, and verbal or written. Without a contract or agreement to bi
11、nd the contracting parties, any international business or transaction would be impossible. Long age, people exchanged promises in making bargains and binding the conduct of others. This exchange of promises came to be known as “agreement” and became more and more important in the fields of business.
12、 A promise or agreement is reached as a result of the process of offer and acceptance. When an agreement is reached, a contract is formed. Once a contract is officially signed by the concerned parties, it creates legal obligations in the sense of law.3.2 段落的发展1 时间顺序法2 空间顺序法3 列举法用来列举一系列的原因、方法等等，使文章层次
13、分明，脉络一目了然。There are a number of ways for us to keep fit. First, no matter how busy we are, we should have exercise every day to strengthen our muscles. Second, it is important to keep good hours. For example, if we are in the habit of going to bed early and getting up early, we can avoid overworking
14、 ourselves and get enough sleep. Finally, entertainment is also necessary so that we may have some moments of relaxation. If we follow those instructions, we will certainly be in good health.4 例证法举具体的事例来证明观点，这是议论文最常用的方法，尽量找最能体现观点的例子，具体点，微观点，给人说服力。请看下面作者论证“不劳无获” 的观点，用的是拳击运动的例子。如：The saying “No pains,
15、 no gains” is universally accepted because of the plain yet philosophical moral teachings: if one wants to achieve something, he has to work and tolerate more than others. The saying is true of any pursuit man seeks. A case in point is boxing. While we heap cheers on the winner, few happen to imagin
16、e that his gold belt is won at the cost of his sweat, tears, blood, even life over years before the arrival of that exciting moment.5 对比法 (comparison and contrast)对比法是指通过叙述或描述两种或两种以上的相关事物之间的相同（相似）的地方或不同之处来表达主题。采用对比法展开段落主要通过两种途径：一是先叙述对比双方的一个方面的全部细节，然后再叙述另一个方面的全部细节；另一个途径是对逐个问题进行双方面的比较。Why do so many g
17、raduates gravitate into business instead of into teaching? Part of the reason is the ever-widening pay gap between these two professions. A secretary, an office clerk or a bank employee can earn monthly income as high as RMB 2，000, and when one is promoted to the position of a business executive or
18、manager, the salary is even higher. But a college graduate with a masters degree can only get a salary of RMB 1，000 per month for his teaching job. No wonder, college graduates are attracted into more lucrative（profitable） fields.本段的主题是为什么那么多的大学毕业生从商，而不从事教学工作。作者运用对比法，说明由于两种职业之间存在着越来越大的收入差异，所以有好多学生毕业
19、后选择从商，而不选择从教。There are striking similarities between two of the most popular U.S. presidents, Abraham Lincoln and John F. Kennedy. Both men had their elections legally challenged. Lincoln and Kennedy are both remembered for their sense of humor, as well as for their interest in civil rights. Lincoln
20、s secretary was Mrs. Kennedy; Kennedys secretary was Mrs. Lincoln. Neither man took the advice of his secretary not to make a public appearance on the day on which he was assassinated. Lincoln and Kennedy were both killed on Friday in the presence of their wives. And finally, the same caisson（弹药车） c
21、arried the bodies of both men in their funeral processions.本段采用对比法通过第一种途径展开段落。这里，作者将美国历史上两位伟大的总统林肯与肯尼迪从六个方面作了比较，描述他们的相似之处。6 分类法分类法是按一定标准对事物进行归类的一种段落发展方法。通过分类，可以使文章脉络一目了然。例如：Examinations fall into three kinds. One is the machine-scored “objective” type. In an objective test, the students answer quest
22、ions by deciding on best choice among a number of alternatives given. Another is the “completion” type. This kind of examination requires the students to add a word or phrase to complete a sentence. And the third type is the essay examination, in which the students are asked to write a composition o
23、n a given topic. All these kinds of examinations are designed to reveal what a student may have learned in any particular course.本段采用分类法来展开段落。主题句在段落开头，指出“考试可分三种类型”。然后，作者运用 One is the machine scored “objective type”, Another is the “completion type”, “And the third type is the essay examination” 来清楚地
24、将考试分类阐述，段落脉络一目了然，层次十分分明。7 定义法定义法是通过简单易懂而且准确的语言阐明某事物的性质和特征来发展段落，使读者对某事物比较抽象的或是难以把握的一些特征有一个较清晰的认识。定义法常用于说明、描写和论证，以提供更多的具体解释来说明某一概念或术语。Poetry is a branch of literature which explores ideas, emotions, and experiences in a distinctive form and style. Poetry, sometimes called “verse”, depends greatly on t
25、he natural rhythms and sounds of language for its special effects. Poetry, even more than prose (all other writings), depends on precise and suggestive wording. In other words, a poem says much in little space. Poetry differs from prose in obvious ways, also. Most often the first word of every line
26、begins with a capital letter, even in the middle of a sentence. Poems sometimes contain rhyme, and often they have a particular rhythm, like music.本段通过下定义的方法说明什么是诗歌。段落一开始就指出诗歌是一种文学形式。作者在段落首句里用一个 which 引导的定语从句直接对 Poetry 进行定义、解释。后来，还利用同散文（prose）的简单对比，将诗歌的特点淋漓尽致地展示给读者。8 因果法因果法是说明事态发展的原因和结果之间联系的，常用在说明文或
27、议论文中。可以先讲原因，后给结果，也可以先给结果，后讲原因。这要视实际需要而定。也有一些段落结果是显而易见的，就集中说明原因；有的段落正好相反，就集中说明结果，因为原因不言自明。The hamburger is the most popular food item in the United States. Every year Americans consume billions of them. They are sold in expensive restaurants and in humble diners. They are cooked at home on the kitche
28、n stove or over a barbecue grill in the backyard. Why are they so popular?First, a hamburger is extremely easy to prepare. It is nothing more than a piece of ground beef, cooked for a few minutes. Then it is placed in a sliced bun. Nothing could be simpler. Even an unskilled cook can turn out hundre
29、ds of them in an hour. Besides that, the simple hamburger can be varied in many ways. You can melt some cheese on top of the beef to create a cheeseburger.上面这篇作文讲的是“ 汉堡受欢迎的原因 ”，第一段提出问题 “为什么受欢迎呢？”接下来在说原因时，用到了上面的列举法，只不过不是“first, second, finally”而是“first, then, besides that”，让人感觉不落俗套。9 综合法综合法是指根据行文的需要采
30、用两种或两种以上的方法来展开段落的写作方法。综合法需要具体情况具体分析地使用，千万不可“眉毛胡子一把抓” ，或者信笔胡写，一定要注意围绕主题句，以说明段落中心思想为前提，保持段落意思的一致性和连贯性。4 全文的结构与发展英语写作一般包括开篇段、正文（发展段）和一个总结段。开篇段和总结段一般比扩展段短。各种段落的作用、特点和写作方法如下所示。4.1 开篇段开篇段的作用：概括陈述主题，提出观点或论点，表明写作意图。注意：开篇段一定要语言精练，并且直接切入主题，最忌开篇离题太远、使用不言自明的陈述、内容空泛、言之无物。开篇段一般不对主题进行深入的探讨，具体的论证或叙述应该在扩展段进行。一般地，两三百
31、字的作文的开篇段有三、五句话就可以了。开篇段常用写法：主题句法、提问法、引语法、数据法、背景法、定义法，等。4.2 正文文章的正文是由若干段落组成，其作用是从不同的层面对文章主题进行具体和详实的解释和论证，是文章的主体部分，其篇幅要比开篇段和总结段长。正文的发展要注意：1) 文章的正文应以文章的开头为线索，具体地叙述、说明或论证文章的主题。2) 每一个段落中一定要有各自的主题句，各段的主题句都要紧紧围绕全文的主题思想；3) 段落之间连贯自然；4) 各段内容主次分明、顺序安排合理，材料比例适当、逻辑性较强；4.3 结尾文章结尾的作用是概括全文内容，进一步强调或肯定文章的中心思想，使文章意义表达得
32、更加深刻。文章的结尾没有一定的模式，可以根据表达主题的需要灵活创造。一般的习惯是，一些记叙文和描写文经常采用自然结尾的方法；但说理性和逻辑性较强的说明文和议论文则往往都有结束语，以便使文章首尾呼应，结构完整。不管是哪一种结尾，总结段都要干脆利落，深化主题。常见的几种模式是：1总结归纳：简要总结归纳文章要点，以便深化主题印象。例如：In conclusion, I would like to say that change is a problem confronting most of us today. The changes which have already taken place i
33、n every field of our life are irreversible. Continuation of the growth which has already begun is inevitable. During this evolution there are great rewards to be wonby those who are willing to take the opportunities being offered.2用不同的语词重复主题句结尾回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上，也就是用不同的话语重述全文主题思想，达到强调的效果。3. 根据前文所述做出
34、自然的、合乎逻辑的预测。例如：It is time that the government should speak out against corruption and take strong action to punish whoever takes bribes or embezzles fund, for present official corruption, if permitted to continue, will not only tarnish the governments popularity, but lead to its ultimate downfall.4.
35、 批评前文中讨论的两种观点之一，或从中作出选择，或两者之间折中处理。My Opinion about GoogleIs Google a good thing or a bad thing? Different people may have different answers. Before giving my opinion, it will be wise to take a look at the advantages and disadvantages that people have raised about it.Among the various advantages that
36、 people have listed about Google, the following 3 are most frequently mentioned. First, Google gives its users a kind of e-library in which people can find nearly all the information they need, such as philosophy, geology, fine art and so on, much easier than in the traditional library. Second, peop
37、le can enjoy finding information on Google at their own home instead of going to the library in which they have to follow the time schedule made by the library. Last but not the least, the appearance of Google largely reduces the time which people spend on finding useful information. All people need
38、 to do is to type a few key words about the information they want to find on Google, and then all the relative information will appear on the computer screen in a moment.As to the disadvantages of Google, people often argue in terms of its reliability and the effects it has on its users creativity a
39、nd health. Some people doubt about the information provided by Google, because they think that the information in Google is second-hand and also including personal intentions of the collectors who select the information from various kinds of newspapers, magazines and other means. The problem is that
40、 its not always easy for them to decide what kind of information should be collected or omitted. Some people think that Google kind of leads them to refuse to do any creative thinking. Searching on the Google is as easy as turning on a water tap, so many students download articles from the Google in
41、stead of writing by themselves. Sometimes, these people get the feeling that they are losing the ability to think independently and even more they dont like to think up something, and just to copy everything. Still, some people hold that Google should take some responsibility for its users health pr
42、oblem, because it is reported that working at computers for more than two hours will cause bad effects to peoples health. The use of Google will eventually add the time of using computer since people tend to find everything by Google. In my opinion, Google, as a modern device, is of great importance
43、 in making peoples life and work more convenient. Its advantages largely outweigh its disadvantages, because its so-called disadvantages are not its own faults at all. Rather, they are all due to peoples improper use of it. If people can use it wisely and dont rely on it too much, the so-called disa
44、dvantages of Google can be largely reduced, and many of them can even be avoided.5. 根据前文所述，提出解决问题的途径、方法或呼吁人们采取相应的行动；但最忌空呼口号，言之无物。例如：College athletics plays such a vital role that it deserves close attention and persistent effort. It is suggested that physical training should be regarded as a require
45、d course wedged into college curricula, however crowded it may be, and that a fair share of college budget should be devoted to athletic programs. We sincerely hope that this suggestion will be a commitment that all colleges and universities will take up.6. 引用一个与文章主题紧密相关的名言警句。Do Unto Others As You W
46、ould Have Others Do Unto YouComing directly from the Bible, the phrase, “Do unto others as you would have others do unto you”, means that we should treat others as we would like to be treated. Confuciuss teaching, like “己所不欲，勿施于人”(Do not impose upon others what you do not desire yourself) and “己欲达而达
47、人”(if you want success, then help others be successful), just captures the same spirit conveyed in this Christian saying, which is also called the Golden Rule.Among the morals by which we live, such as honesty, and sensitivity and so on, the Golden Rule embodies our most cherished value. Above all,
48、in our life, interpersonal relationships probably cause more stress and anxiety than any other single factor. Noticeably regularly, conflicts in the home, in the street and other public places provoke and enhance anxiety in most of us. If every one can follow the Golden Rule, and stand in the others
49、 shoes, conflicts can be diminished or even be avoided, and harmony can be realized. People can then live in peace and friendliness. However, if every one treats others in any way that seems to serve his or her own immediate best interests, even if it means doing harm to others interests, no one can escape from a state of constant anxiety. Life then will be nothing but a nightmare. That accounts for why many, if not most of us, for most of the time, are practicing the Golden Rule. Practicing that rule is a sign that we are different from animals.No doubt, there are alw
