1、1.Definition of Second language acquisition: It refers to a systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language.Acquisition 习得: 无意识地学会Learning 学习：通过系统学习语法规律等学会2. Interlanguage 中介语Selinker (1972) coined the term “interlanguage” to refer to the systematic kn
2、owledge of an L2 which is independent of both these learners L1 and the target language. The term has come to be used with different but related meanings: (1) to refer to the series of interlocking systems which characterize acquisition. (2) to refer to the system that is observed at a single stage
3、of development. (“interlanguage”), and (3) to refer to particular L1/L2 combination (for example,L1 French/ L2 English v. L1 Japanese/L2 English). Other terms that refer to the same basic idea are “approximative system” and “transitional competence”.定义：中介语：中介语理论假设第二语言学习者有一个自行创造的独特的语言系统，介乎学习者的母语和目的语之
4、间，并随学习的进展逐渐向目的语靠拢。因为游离于母语和目的语之间，中介语自然包含许多错误。E.g. I lost my road.I lost my way.特征：Fossilization（石化现象）:It refers to the phenomenon that incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language. 石化现象是中介语的重要特征 E.g. All students are not here.不是所有的学生都在这里None of
5、 the student is here.所有的学生都不在这里FossilizationSelinker (1972) noted that most L2 learners fail to reach target-language competence. That is, they stop learning while their internalized rule system contains rules different from those of target system. This is referred to as “fossilization”. It reflects
6、 the operation of various internal processes.1、Concepts of Second language acquisition: 1Objectives:1 Competence vs performance2 L1 vs. L2 vs. FL3 Acquisition vs. learning 4 Input vs. output5 Interlanguage 中介语 6 Variability7 Fossilization （石化现象） 8 Language transfer 迁移2. Competence vs. PerformanceCho
7、msky (1957)made his famous distinguish between Competence and PerformanceCompetence: an ideal speakers knowledge of his languages manifested in his ability to use the language.Sound, form, meaning:Performance: the specific utterances, including grammatical mistakes and non-linguistic features such a
8、s hesitations, etc. Competence and performance in language learningWhat is acquired or learned of the two? In language learning, what does the distinction tell us? (result, process, evaluation)3. First language vs. Second language vs. F L1What is First language (L1)? L1, with other names: native lan
9、guage (NL), mother tongue, primary language. First language or second language indicates the order or sequence of language learning.2. What is second language (L2)?The language one learns after his native language or L1.“Second” can mean any language one learn that is subsequent to his L1.3.Two sens
10、es of L2A: the language one learns after his native language, one learns the language in the target language (TL) language environment. (narrow sense)Example: A Chinese learns English in US or UK. An American learns Chinese in China.B: Any language that one learns other than his native tongue.( broa
11、d sense)Example: We are learning English in China.4.Foreign Language (FL)The language that one learns other than his first language, but not in the target language environment.1 Learning English not in the English-spoken countries.2 Differences between FL and L2FL L24.A Comparison between L1 and L2
12、acquisitionSpeedStagesError correctionDepth of knowledgeSuccessLevel of attainment5.Acquisition vs. Learning1. What is acquisition?The distinction between acquisition and learning was made by S. Krashen, the famous American applied linguist in his “Monitor Theory”.He defined two types of modes of le
13、arning in adult L2 learning.2.Acquisition: the subconscious learning process in the natural language environment that is not influenced by explicit instruction in a second languages rules and system or about errors.Learning: is a conscious process of language development that is the result of intend
14、ed and explicit instruction in a second languages roles and system or about errors in a artificial environment such as a formal language classroom.A comparison between Learning and acquisitionAcquisition LearningImplicit, subconscious Explicit, consciousInformal situations Formal situationsUses gram
15、matical “feel”Uses grammatical rulesDepends on attitude Depends on aptitudeStable order of acquisitionSimple to complex order of learning6.Input and Output1 What is input and output?Generally, input refers to the channels (process) that learners acquire information of language in learning or acquisi
16、tion: listening and reading;Output refers to the channels and process results) that learners produce language, including speaking and writing.2 Kinds of InputAuthentic input: Native speaker input, no modificationModified input Native speaker input, no modificationInterlanguage input Teacher talk, pe
17、ers talk3 Linguistic adjustments to Non-Native Speakers (NNS)“foreigner talk” ( Ferguson, 1975)well-formed but modified.Feature* slower, more careful pronunciation, stress on key words （VOA special English ）* shorter grammar structures* grammatical relations made explicit* less syntactic or proposit
18、ional complexity* restricted vocabulary size* fewer pro forms4 Comprehensible inputStephen Krashen (1981) held that learners acquire an L2 by hearing and understanding messages that are slightly above their current language L2 level. This type of input is called comprehensible input (namely, “i+1”)E
19、ssentially, comprehensible input is that bit of language that is heard/read and that is slightly ahead of a learners current state of grammatical knowledge.Language containing structures a learner already knows essentially serves no purpose in acquisition. Similarly, language containing structures a
20、head of a learners current knowledge is not useful. A learner does not have the ability to “do” anything with those structures. Krashen defined a learners current state of knowledge as i and the next stage as i + 1. Thus the input a learner is exposed to must be at the i + 1 level in order for it to
21、 be of use in terms of acquisition. “We move from i, our current level to i + 1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i + 1” (1985, p. 2).The teachers main role, then, is to ensure that students receive comprehensible input.5 Comprehensible outputMany researchers
22、 believe that Input alone is not sufficient for acquisition, because when one hears language one can often interpret the meaning without the use of syntax.Input -output (what is in between?)Intake is very necessary for Second language learners also need comprehensible output: chances to practice the
23、ir language. This practice is called comprehensible output.Cooperative learning is one effective way to do so.Comprehensible output refers to the need for a learner to be “pushed toward the delivery of a message that is not only conveyed, but that is conveyed precisely, coherently, and appropriately
24、” (Swain, 1985, p. 249).Output, thus, would seem to have a potentially significant role in the development of syntax and morphology” (Swain, 1995, p. 128).可理解输入的三个功能：注意/触发功能(noticing)。忽视问题、识别问题并对相关输入予以注意、注意特定的输入加工，寻找解决办法假设验证功能(hypothesis-testing)。L2 学习是一个不断对目标做出假设并不断验证的过程。元语言功能(metalanguage)。琢磨、分析语言
25、所得出的关于语言的形式、结构和其它方面的知识教元语言。当学习者反思其目标语用法时，输出就起元语言的功能。7.Interlanguage (IL)Definition: inter+languageLarry Selinker (1972) coined the term interlanguage is an emerging linguistics system that has been developed by a learner of a second language who has not become fully proficient yet, but is only appro
26、ximating the target language.An IL is idiosyncraticaly based on the learners experiences with the second language.The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker (1972). Various terms have been used for the same thing: Nemser (1971): approximative systemsCorder (1971): idiosyncratic dialects, tran
27、sitional competence.8.Transfer1 Definition:Transfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously (and perhaps imperfectly) acquired (Odlin 1989:27)“一个人关于一种语言的知识对他另一种语言的知识或使用产生的影响” The influence of a perso
28、ns knowledge of one language on that persons knowledge or use of another language. (Jarvis and 4. Predictionidentification of possible areas that cause errors.3 Error AnalysisWhat is EA?It aims to 1) find out how well the learners know about his language;2) find out how the learners learn an L2;3) o
29、btain information on common difficulties in L2 learning;4) Serve as an aid in teaching or in the preparation and compilation of teachingDefining errorsTill now, there is still controversy of how language error is. However, it is still possible to provide a more safe definition of error. Based on man
30、y scholars, we could define error as:the incorrect or inappropriate use or comprehension of the target language, which seems to be deviant from what regarded as the norm by native speakers because of the factors like language differences and similarities, language transfer, ignorance, forgetting, an
31、xiety, false learning strategies, etc.The Nature of ErrorsTo do a good job in the study of errors, its essential to understand what the error is. The nature of an error could not merely be accounted for as “failure in habit-formation” as argued by behaviorists or “distance” between learners UG (Univ
32、ersal Grammar) and the TL (Target Language) as appealed by mentalists. In fact, errors could appear because of various factors concerning language learning, and the nature of an error will be different accordingly. Aspect of Knowledgestudents have to learn many rules or principles of the target lang
33、uage by formal instruction, and naturally, the lack of the related knowledge of target language will directly result in errors. For example, if learners havent mastered the rules of passive voice or subjunctive mood, its hard for them to recollect the required knowledge from memory and therefore, er
34、rors are inevitable.Aspect of CognitionAs a matter of fact, where rate is concerned, there is evidence that older learners are better than younger ones in understanding the language. Therefore, it is natural to see that as to some complex items, younger learners tend to make errors easily. It is jus
35、t for the same reason that we could not expect the learner at the beginning stage to master the “subjunctive mood” or even more complicated Aspect of Affection Learners affection in fact plays an important role in learning, which no one can ignore. Negative influence on learners affection will direc
36、tly result in decline of learning innately, which could be manifested in various aspects. Students anxiety, self-esteem, lower motivation as well as some other affective factors will for sure lead to errors to some extent if treated inappropriately. How to deal with errorsCollectingdescribingIdentif
37、yingAnalyzingEvaluation CorrectionError TreatmentCorrection must be carried out according to the situation delicately. In an effective correction, factors like the teacher, students, peers, etc. must be considered comprehensively. In all, there are at least the following ways for teachers to choose:
38、Providing Useful FeedbackSelf-CorrectionPeer CorrectionDynamic Teacher Correction Establishing Students Error Portfolio4Identify Learner DifferenceContents of this chapter1. Learning Styles2. Learning Strategies3. Language aptitude4. Learning Intelligence5. Learning motivation6. Learning personality
39、7. Learning age1. Learning Styles1.1 Definition of Learning StylesLearning style refers to the way a learner likes to learn. It is put into action by specific learning strategies.According to Gass (2008), learning style is the preferences that an individual has of obtaining, processing, and retainin
40、g information. In other words, how do individuals approach the taskof learning? The term learning style is often used interchangeably with personality, although the former is undoubtedly more variable, whereas the latter refers to a stable trait of an individual.1.2 What are the necessary aspects?Ac
41、cording to Oxford and Anderson (1995), there are six interrelated aspects:1) The cognitive aspect: preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning2) The executive aspect: the extent to which learners look for order, organization, and closure in managing the learning processes.3) The affective a
42、spect: attitudes, beliefs, and values that influence what the learner focus on most.4) The Social aspect: the preferred degree of involvement with other people in learning.5) The physiological element: involves what are at least partly based on sensory and perceptual tendencies of the learners.6) Th
43、e behavioral aspect: tendency to actively seek situations compatible with their own learning preferences.1.3 Types of learning styles1) Visual learner: through seeingVisual learner need to see the teachers body language and facial expression to understand the contentsitting in the frontThink in pict
44、ures and learn best from visual displays: diagrams, illustrated text books, videos, flipcharts and hand-outsTake notes to get the information.2) Audio learner: through listeningLearn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through, listening to othersGet meaning through listening t
45、o tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances.Written information may have little sense until it is heard.Often benefit from reading aloud and using tape recorder.3) Hands-On learner: through doingLearn best through hands-on appraoch, active exploring the physical world around them. Its hard for t
46、hem to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration.4) Analytic vs. Global:attentive to details or summativeAnalytic:Tend to think and analyze; prefer contrastive analysis and discrimination, not sensitive to social/affective factors, often focus on
47、 grammarGlobal:avoid analysis, can converse without knowing all the words, sensitive to the social-emotional content5) Extrovert vs Introvert: talkative or silentExtrovert:Energized by the outside world, interaction-oriented, outgoing, broad interests, tend to reflect later.Introvert :Energized by t
48、he inner world, prefer concentration; focus on thoughts and concepts, fewer interests, but deep ones, reflective The typical extrovert is social , like parties, needs to have people to talk to, and does not like studying by himself. He craves excitement, takes chances, often sticks his neck out, and
49、 is generally an impulsive individual. He always has a ready answer, and generally likes changes. The typical introvert, on the other hand, is a quiet, retiring sort of person, introspective, fond of books rather than people; he is reserved and distant, except with intimate friends. He tends to plan ahead and distrusts the impulse of the moment. He does not like excitement, takes matters of everyday life with proper seriousness, and likes a well-ordered life.6) Intuitive vs. Sequen
