1、Chapter I Introduction Describing and Explaining L2 Acquisition1.1What is second language acquisition?Second language refers to any language that is learned subsequent to the mother tongue.1.2What are the goals of second language?The goals of SLA are to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to ex
2、plain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others. 1.3Two case studies of L2 learners1.3.1 A case study of an adult learner1.3.2 A case study of two child learnersWhat do these case studies show us?a. They raise a number of important methodological issues relating to how L
3、2 acquisition should be studied b. They raise issues relating to the description of learner languagec. They point out some of the problems researchers experience in trying to explain L2 acquisition.1.4Methodological issuesWhat is that needs to be described?a. What it means to say that a learner has
4、acquired a feature of the target language?b. Whether learners have acquired a particular feature?c. How to measure whether acquisition has taken place? (Learners overuse of linguistic forms.)1.5Issues in the description of learner languagea. Learners make errors of different kinds.b. Learners acquir
5、ed a large number of formulaic chunks, which will influence their performance in communication and the fluency of their unplanned speech. c. Whether learners acquire the language systematically?1.6Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisitionItem learning: formulaic chunks System learning: rules Inter
6、nal (mentalist) account:External account:Chapter2 the Nature of Learner Language2.1Errors and error analysis2.1.1 Identifying errors 2.1.1.1 Compare the learners language with the normal ones.2.1.1.2 Distinguish errors and mistakes.Definition: Errors reflect gaps in a learners knowledgeMistakes refl
7、ect occasional lapses in performance.Methods: a. Check the consistency of learners performance.b. Ask them to correct their own utterance.Errors and mistakes:2.1.2 Describing errorsMethods: a. error type oriented:b. error maker oriented:Meaning: Classifying errors in these ways can help us to diagno
8、se learners learning problems at any one stage of their development and, also to plot how changes in error patterns occur over time. 2.1.3 Explaining errorsErrors are systematic, predictable, and some of them are universal: (Learners has constructed some kind of “rule”, albeit a rule different from
9、that of the target language)Eg: omission: leave out the article “the”, leave out the s in plural nounsOvergeneralization error: eated-ateTransfer errors reflect learners attempt to make use of their L1 knowledge. 2.1.4 Error evaluationTypes of errors: Global errors: violate the whole structure of th
10、e sentenceLocal errors: affect only a single constituent in the sentence2.2Developmental patterns 2.2.1 The early stage of L2 acquisitionSilent period: children make no attempt to say anything to begin with.This period makes a preparation for subsequent production.Trials and errors: Mulaic chunks: t
11、hey provide learners with the means of performing useful language functions such as greetings and requests. Eg:“How do you do?”“My name is_”Propositional simplification: leave words outEg: “Me no blue”2.2.2 The order of acquisition Accuracy order: there is a definite accuracy order and that this rem
12、ains more or less the same irrespective of the learners mother tongues, age, and whether or not they have receive formal language instruction.2.2.3 Sequence of acquisition a. The acquisition of a particular grammatical structure, therefore, must be seen as a process involving transitional constructi
13、ons.b. Acquisition follows a U shaped course of development.c. The process in which learners reorganize their existing knowledge in order to accommodate new knowledge is called restructuring.2.2.4 Some Implications a. L2 is systematic and universal, reflecting ways in which internal cognitive mechan
14、isms control acquisition, irrespective of the personal background of learners or the settings in which they learn.b. Some linguistic features are inherently easier to learn than others. 2.3Variability in learner languagea. Variability is also systematic, that is, learners use their linguistic source
15、s in predictable ways.b. Learners vary in their use of the second language according tolinguistic context (George playing football/ all the time)situational context.(kids/daughter)缺乏与目的语社会文化融合的欲望:由于各种不同的社会和心理因素,学习者对接受目的语文化标准不做出努力。(2)外因: 交际压力: 持续不断的交流压力要求使用目的语超出了学习者的语言能力导致石化的发生。缺乏学习机会:学习者缺乏获得输入和使用第二语
16、言的机会。反馈性质：对学生第二语言使用的影响:肯定的认知回馈( 表示“我明白你的话”) 导致石化的发生 ;否定的回馈(表示“我听不懂你的话”)有助于消除石化。应对策略(一)增加二语的输入量大多数二语的初学者如果得不到足够的二语的陈述性知识,就会出现语言的稳定期。所以外语教学中,当学习者已经达到某种精通程度后, 应该增加他的二语输入量。二语的输入既要重视数量又要重视质量。课堂教学材料要多样化,当前的许多教材应该编辑一系列激发二语学习动机的语境和篇章,如报刊文章、海报、广告等。学生应尽可能多利用课外听、说、读写资源和任何可以增加二语输入量的机会。第二语言的输入应该包括音位知识、语法和词汇。第二语言
17、知识的积累还应该包括相关的文化知识输入。对语言迁移的研究表明学习者对语言的标志性特征比较敏感,所以某种语言的一般特征而不是可区别性特征更容易导致石化。这样, 为了避免石化, 语言学习者需要比较母语和目的语的文化,找出存在于两种语言之间结构表达上的异同来减少母语的迁移。(二)融合听、说、读、写四种技能促进自动化和认知以认知理论对二语学习所做的分析为基础,针对我国大多数英语学习者产生石化的主要原因，并借鉴 Brown 的建议,针对中级学习者,我们可以适当采取综合听、说、读、写四种技巧的教学方法:第一种是以内容为中心的教学(content-based teaching),这种教学以教授某专业的内容为
18、主,把英语作为学习该专业的交流手段, 学生要想学好专业课,必须使自己的英语在听、说、读、写等方面都达到一定的水平才能取得成功;第二种是以主题为中心的教学(theme-basedteaching),这种教学方法围绕某一能够激发学生兴趣的主题或话题组织教学。例如英语精读课就可以围绕公共卫生、环境意识、世界经济等课题展开教学,目前在我国这种方法已被普遍采用,但由于教师的准备不够, 更重要的是由于教材的编制不能满足或跟上实际需要,所以没能达到这种方法的最佳效果;第三种是以任务为中心的教学(task-based teaching),这种方法更注重语言在实际运用中功能的实现,在课堂上语言知识的输入以各种真
19、实的资料为主,如面试、采访、公告、菜单等,要求学习者使用所学的英语知识在实际生活中完成某一具体任务,这样就突出了语言的功能性特点。对于高级英语学习者来说,提供真实的语境是当务之急,学习者可以通过大量观看原版英文电影、英语电视节目以及用英语写影评、日记等方式来弥补缺少真实语境的不足,另外尽可能多地和外教或本族语是英语的外国人交流并充分利用互联网最大限度地使自己接触自然真实的英语语境。Chapter 3 Interlanguage3.1 Behaviorist Learning TheoryLanguage learning theory is like any other kind of lea
20、rning in that it involves habit formation.But it is not adequate to adequately account for L2 acquisition, since learners frequently do not produce output that simply reproduce input.Habit-stimulus- response connection3.2 A mentalist theory in language learning Main ideas of this theory 1. Only huma
21、n beings are capable of learning language. 2. The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning languageLanguage Acquisition Device(语言习得机制）. 3. This faculty is the primary determinant of LA. 4. Input is needed, but only to trigger the operation of the language acquisition device.3.3 What is “in
22、terlanguage”?It refers to the systematic knowledge of an L2 that is independent of both the target and the learners L1. . A learners interlanguage is a unique linguistic system.The premises of interlanguage 1. Interlanguage is viewed as a mental grammar.（心理语法） 2. The learmers grammar is permeable.（渗
23、透性） 3. The learners grammar is transitional.（迁移） 4. The systems learners construct contain variable rules.多变 5. Learners employ various learning strategies to develop their interlanguage.（学习策略） 6. The learners grammar is likely to fossilize.（石化） 1. Mental Grammar The learner constructs a system of a
24、bstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production of the L2. This system of rules is viewed as a mental grammar and is referred to as an interlanguage.2. Permeable The grammar is open to influence from the outside (i.e. through the input). It is also influenced from the inside. (
25、i.e.omission, overgeneralisation) computational model of L2 acquisition3. Transitional Learners change their grammar from one time to another by adding rules, deleting rules, and reconstructing the whole system. This results in an interlanguage continuum(连续体)eg. Paint paint, painting paint, painting
26、, painted4. Variable Some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules. That is, the learners are likely to have competing rules at any one stage of development. Other researchers argue that interlanguage systems are homogenerous and that variability reflects t
27、he mistakes learners make when they try to use their knowledge to communicate. 5.learning strategiesLearners employ various learning strategies to develop their interlanguages. The different kinds of errors learners produce reflect different learninf strategies.6. FossilizationSelinker suggested tha
28、t only about 5% of learners go on to develop the same mental grammar as native speakers.3.4 Computational model of L2 acquisition inputintakeL2 knowledgeoutput Black box of the learners mind=interlanguage constructed Other ways to elaborate this basic modelSocial context added to explain how the nat
29、ure of the input varies from one setting to anotherL2 knowledge broken up into two or more components to reflect the different kinds of knowledge learners constructs.e.g. explicit knowledge about language & implicit knowledge of language(P35)An arrow can be drawn from output to input.Chapter 4 Socia
30、l aspects of interlanguage 4.1 Interlanguage as a stylistic continuum (风格连续体 )Stylistic continuum:a. careful style 谨慎体b. vernacular style 通俗体Problems: a. Learners are not always most accurate in their careful style and least careful in their vernacular style. b. the role of social factors remains un
31、clear.Accommodation theory:How social groups influence the courses of L2 acquisition. (Convergence, divergence)4.2 The acquisition model of L2 acquisition( 儒化模式)Social distance, psychological distance, pidginization4.3 Social identity and investment in L2 learningCultural capital is needed to invest
32、 in language learning.Chapter 5 Discourse Aspects of Interlanguage5.1Acquiring discourse rules Discourse rules refer to the rules or regularities in the ways in which native speakers hold conversations.5.2The role of input and interaction in L2 acquisition1. Stephen Krashens input hypothesis L2 acqu
33、isition takes place when a learner understands input that contains grammatical forms that are at i+1 (are a little more advanced than the current state of the learners interlanguage) . L2 acquisition depends on comprehensible input.（可理解的语言输入) Current state: i next advancing state: i+1 2. Michael Lon
34、gs interaction hypothesis（互动假说） Michael Longs interaction hypothesis also emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input but claims that it is most effective when it is modified through the negotiation of meaning（意义协商）3. Evelyn Hatch: Scaffolding Evelyn Hatch emphasizes the collaborative endeavor
35、s of the learners and their interlocutors in constructing discourse and suggests that syntactic structures can grow out of the process of building the discourse 4. Scaffolding（支架学习法）Learners use the discourse to help them produce utterances that they would not be able to produce on their own.Mark: C
36、ome here.Homer: No come here. 5.3The role of output in L2 acquisition Krashen: Speaking is the result of acquisition not its cause. The only way learners can learn from their output is by treating it as auto-input. Merrill Swain: Comprehensible output also plays a part in L2 acquisition. 1) To serve
37、 a consciousness-raising function by helping learners to notice gaps in their interlanguages. 2) To test hypotheses. 3) To identify problems with it and discussing ways in which they can be put right.Chapter 6 Psycholinguistic aspects of interlanguage 6.1 L1Transfer Negative transfer Positive transf
38、erAvoidanceContrastive analysisSpeech actsInterlangage development cannot follow a restructuring continuum6.2The role of consciousness in L2 acquisitionSchmidt argues that learning cannot take place without what he calls noticing.Implicit knowledge: the result of an automatic process隐性知识：二语学习者能用但表达不
39、出来的直觉知识Explicit knowledge: the result of an effortful process 显性知识：二语学习者能意识到、 能说出来的语言规则知识 It is perhaps self-evident that all language users, including L2 learners, know rules that guide their performance without any awareness of what the rules consist of. They can always reflect on this implicit kn
40、owledge 隐性知识, thus making it explicit. It is also clear that L2 learners may have knowledge about the L2 (i.e. explicit knowledge 显性知识 ) but be unable to use this knowledge in performance without conscious attention.6.3 Processing operations Operating principles The study of the L1 acquisition of ma
41、ny different languages has led to the identification of a number of general strategies which children use to extract and segment linguistic information from the language they hear. Examples: avoid interruptionrearrangement of linguistic unitsavoid exceptions Multidimensional model This theory sought
42、 to account for both why learners acquire the grammar of a language in a definite order and also why some learners only develop very simple interlanguage grammars. It distinguishes a developmental and a variational axis. Processing constraints 6.4 Communication strategies Avoid problematic itemsMy b
43、rother made me to give him some money. Borrow a word from L1 Use another target-language word that is approximate in meaning Paraphrase the meaning of word Construct an entirely new wordPsycholinguistic models to account for the use of communication strategiesFor example: Claus Faerch and Gabriele K
44、asper proposed a model of speech production. 6.5 Two types of computational modelSerial processing: 串行处理 Information is processed in a series of sequential steps and results in the representation of what has been learned as some kind of rule or strategyParallel distributed processing: 并行处理 Learners
45、with the ability to perform a number of mental tasks at the same time Chapter 7 linguistic aspects of interlanguage 7.1Typological universals: relative clause 当代类型学是从微观的视角研究语言各个层面的类型特征与共性，通过对大量语言的观察，统计和对比，从中发现语言的普遍规律和形成这些规律的普遍性制约因素，并探究其形成动因，以解释和预测语言可能具有的变化模式，从而揭示语言发展变化的本质。当代类型学理论中的“标记性” ， “蕴含共性”和“语法
46、层级”对二语习得研究产生了巨大的影响，开启了基于类型学理论的二语习得研究路径。7.2Universal grammarChomsky argues that language is governed by a set of highly abstract principles that provide parameters which are given particular settings in different language.7.3Learnability Chomsky has claimed that children learning their L1 must rely o
47、n innate knowledge of language because otherwise the task facing them is an impossible one. His argument is that the input to which children are exposed is insufficient to enable them to discover the rules of the language they are trying to learn. This insufficiency is referred to as the poverty of
48、the stimulus.7.4The critical period hypothesis(语言学习关键期假设)The critical period hypothesis states that there is a period during which language acquisition is easy and complete (i.e.native-speaker ability is achieved) and beyond which it is difficult and typically incomplete. 7.5Access to UG1. Complete
49、access2. No access3. Partial access4. Dual access7.6Markedness The degree of markedness correlates with the order of acquisition.（可标记等级与语言习得顺序是相关的）一对语言特征包括两个对立体: 有标记的和无标记的。无标记成分：常见的，意义一般的，分布较广的。有标记成分：反之。7.7Cognitive verus linguistic explanation 如何看待这些语言学解释呢？alternative？ complementary？ It depends on whether linguistic universals and markedness are seen as exerting a direct effect on L2 acquisition or whether the linguistic universals and markedness are seen
