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类型语言学期末考试重点.docx

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    1、 What is language? “ Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.” System: linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary: e.g. book Symbolic: people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. Vocal: langu

    2、age is primarily vocal, rather than written Human-specific:Design features of language语言的本质特征 Arbitrariness (任意性)Saussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:

    3、The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese. Onomatopoeia: words that sound like the sounds they describeDuality (二重性)Language consists of two levels of structures. The lower (secondary) level is a definite set of meaningless sounds which combine to form meaningful units (morphemes, words,

    4、 such as he, left) which constitute a higher (primary) level.Productivity or Creativity (创造性)Because of duality the human speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard. Words can be used in new ways to mea

    5、n new things, and can be instantly understood by people who have never come across that usage before. Displacement(移位性)One can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of

    6、the future. Our language enables us to communicate about things that do not exist or do not yet exist.e.g. A dog cannot tell people that its master will be home in a few days.Cultural transmission(文化传递性)Language is culturally transmitted. It cannot be transmitted through heredity.e.g. a person learn

    7、s to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dogs barking system.e.g. a Chinese baby born and brought up in Londonan English child brought up in BeijingInterchangeability(互换性)It refers to that man can both produce and receive message. One can be a speaker or a hearerSpecialization

    8、(专门性)It refers to the fact that man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communicationFunction of language(语言功能 )Phatic function/communion(寒暄功能)Language is used to establish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker and the hearer.e.g. Greetings, farewell and c

    9、ommentsDirective function (指令功能 Language is used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences are of this function.e.g. open the door Informative function(信息功能) Language is used to tell something, to give information, or to reason things out. Declarative sentences:e.g. I saw her yest

    10、erday on the streetInterrogative function (疑问功能)Language is used to ask for information from others. All questions expecting replies serve this function.e.g. whats your name?what time is it now?Expressive function(表达功能)Language is used to reveal the speakers attitudes and feelings. e.g. Oh, my God!E

    11、vocative function(唤起功能)Language is used to create certain feelings in the hearers.e.g. Jokes, advertising, and propagandaPerfomative function(施为功能)Language is used to do things or to perform acts.e.g. I now pronounce you husband and wife.Descriptive and prescriptive grammars (描写式和规定式语法)Descriptive g

    12、rammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language. As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive.Most modern linguistics is descriptive.e.g. A: who is that?B: Its me. / Its I.Synchronic and di

    13、achronic linguistics (共时与历时语言学)When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics.Synchronic linguistics focuses on the state of language at any point in history while

    14、 diachronic linguistics focuses on the differences in two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries.Langue and parole (语言与言语F. de Saussure make an important distinction between langue and parole.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech

    15、 community. Parole refers to particular realizations of langue.Langue is the social, conventional side of language, while parole is individualized speech.Competence and performance (语言能力和语言应用)According to Chomsky, competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a sy

    16、stem of abstract formal relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.Chapter 2 The Sounds of LanguagePhoneticsThe study of the speech sounds that occur in all human languages is called phonetics. The study of sounds can be divided

    17、 into three main areas: Articulatory Phonetics; Acoustic Phonetics; Perceptual or Auditory PhoneticsClassification of English speech soundsSpeech sounds of all languages are broadly classified into vowels and consonants.Vowels: there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx

    18、to the lips.Consonants: we are making it difficult or impossible for the air to pass through the mouth.ConsonantsEnglish consonant can be classified according to the manner of articulation and the place of articulation.The manner of articulation: it refers to the type of stricture involved in the pr

    19、oduction of a consonant (the particular way the airstream is obstructed).The place of articulation: it refers to the involvement of the articulators in the production of a particular consonant (where the airstream is most obstructed).The manner of articulationPlosives /stops (爆破音) /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/

    20、, /k/, /g/Fricatives (摩擦音) /f/, /v/, /s/, /z/, /, /, / /, /, /h/Affricates (破擦音 ) /t/, /d/Liquids (流音) /l/, /r/ Nasals (鼻音) /m/, /n/, /Glides (median approximants) (滑音) /j/, /w/The place of articulationBilabials (双唇音): /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ Labiodentals (唇齿音): /f/, /v/Dentals (齿音): /, /Alveolars (齿龈音):

    21、 /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/, /r/, /l/Palatals (上颚音) : /j/, /, /, /d/, /t/ Velars (软腭音): /k/, /g/, /Glottal (声门音,喉音): /h/Phonology (音系学 /音位学)Phonology is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language.Minimal pairs 最小对立体Minimal pairs: are pairs of words which differ from each

    22、 other only by one sound (occurs in the same place). Minimal sets 最小对立体集 Minimal sets: when a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set. On the vowel phonemes e.g. feat, fit, fate, fat, fought, foo

    23、tOn the consonantse.g. big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wigSuprasegmentals (超语段音位学) Suprasegmental features refers to the phonemic features that occur above the level of sound segment. The major suprasegmental features in english include word stress, sentence stress, tone, and intonation. STRESS TONE INTONA

    24、TION。StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line is often used just before the syllable it relates to. A basic distinction is made between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former being more prominent than the latter, which m

    25、eans that stress is a relative notion.Verb NounCONvict conVICTINsult inSULTPROduce proDUCEREbel reBELIntonation (语调)Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation.The falling tone:what is said is a straight-forward, matter of fact statement

    26、.the rising tone: often makes a question of what is said the fall-rise tone: there is an implied message in what is said the rise-fall tone.Chapter 3 MorphologyMorphology (词法学)Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from sma

    27、ller components morphemes.Morphemes :is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.The following list shows that in English a single word may

    28、consist of one or more morphemes.One morpheme: desireTwo morphemes: desire + ableThree morphemes: desire + able + ityFour morphemes: un + desire + able + ityTypes of morphemesFree vs. Bound morphemes: Free morphemes (自由词素) : those which can stand alone as words, that is, those which may constitute w

    29、ords by themselves. eg boy, girl, table, in, the Free morphemes:Lexical Morphemes The set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives. e.g. book, desk, house, love, look, long, happy.Functional morphemes. e.g. and, but, because, if, when, on, above, in, it, the, thatBound MorphemesBound morphemes (粘附词素)

    30、 : those which cannot normally stand alone, that is, those which must appear with at least another morpheme. eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-.Inflectional Morphemes (屈折词缀) friendships.The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivat

    31、ional affix.Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which can add an affix.Types of word formation InflectionClipping: the process by which parts of a word have been cut off is called Clipping. Cllipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a short form, often in casual

    32、 speech.Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), (omni)bus, exam(ination), lab(oratory), piano(forte)Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (air)plane, (heli)copter, (tele)phone, (earth)quakeFore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)Blending:a single new word can also be formed by combining two separate for

    33、ms.transfer+resistortransistorsmoke+fogsmogmotorist+hotelmotelbreakfast+lunchbrunchmodulator+demodulatormodemdance+exercisedancerciseadvertisement+editorialadvertorialeducation+entertainmentedutainmentinformation+commercialinfomercialChapter 4 SyntaxSyntax :Syntax is the study of the rules governing

    34、 the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis) 直接成份分析法Binary division / cutting二元切分 Ultimate constituents 最终成份SNP VPArt N V NPArt NA man bought a

    35、 carWord-level PhrasalN=nounAdj=adjectiveV=verbPrep=prepositionDet=determinerArt = articleAdv=adverbConj=conjunctionSNP VPArt N V Art NA man bought a carNP=noun phraseAP=adjective phraseVP=verb phrasePP=preposition phraseS=sentence or clauseTransformational- Generative Grammar (转换生成语法)NOAM CHOMSKY (

    36、1928- ), institute professor at MIT. Linguist, philosopher, and political activist.Chapter 5 Semantics Semantics: is a branch of linguistics which is concerned with the study of meaning in all its formal aspects.The meaning of words: Lexical semanticsThe meaning of sentences: Propositional meaning,

    37、compositional meaningLinguistic semantics vs. Logical semantics/philosophical semanticsPragmatics: The meaning of utterances Semantic relationship between wordsMajor sense relations 涵义关系Homonymy lead (n.)lead(v.)Homophones: when two words are identical in sound. (同音异形异义,发音一样,形不同,意义不同)e.g. Rainreign,

    38、 nightknightAntonymy(反义关系)Words that are opposite in meaning are often called antonyms. The oppositeness of meaning is called antonym. 1) Gradable antonym (等级反义词)There are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. E.g. oldyoung, hotcold, tallshort.2)ungradable antonym (非等级反义词)e.g.

    39、alivedead,malefemale,presentabsent.Sense relations between SentenceX entails YX presupposes YX is synonymous with YX is inconsistent with YImplicature2)X presupposes Y (预设)X: his bike needs repairing. Y: he has a bike.X: Paul has given up smoking.Y: Paul once smoked.If X is true, Y must be true; If

    40、X is false, Y is still trueChapter 6 Pragmatics Semantics VS PragmaticsSemantics:the study of the literal meaning of a sentence (without taking context into consideration).Pragmatics:the study of the intended meaning of a speaker (taking context into consideration).e.g. Today is Sunday.Semantics is

    41、the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language.Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that studies how context influences the way speakers interpret sentences.Definition of PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of speakers intended meaning, or even the “invisible” meaning, that is, how hea

    42、rers recognize what is meant even when it isnt actually said or written.The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers meaning, utterance meaning,an act performed in saying something.Perlocutionary act(取效行为): the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending on

    43、 specific circumstances. An act performed as a result of saying something.e.g. It is cold in hereThe locutionary act (发话行为): is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is cold in here.The illocutionary act (行事行为): can be a request of the hearer to shut the window.Perlocutionary act(取效行

    44、为): can be the hearers shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the reque (the telephone rings)-H: thats the phone 1)-W: Im in the bathroom 2)-H: Okay. 3)The Cooperative Principle (CP) 合作原则Make your conversational contribution as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted

    45、 purpose or direction of the exchange in which you are engaged.Four maxims of CPThe maxim of quality (质量准则)Try to make your contribution one that is true.1) Do not say what you believe to be false.2) Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity (数量准则)1) Make your contri

    46、bution as informative as is required (for the current purpose of the exchange).2) Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.The maxim of relation (关系准则Be relevant.The maxim of manner (方式准则)Be perspicuous Avoid obscurity of expressionAvoid ambiguity.Be brief.Be orderly.Chapter8 Sociolinguistics(社会语言学)is the study of language in relation to society.Chapter 9 psycholinguistics 心理语言学 is the study of the language processing mechanisms.

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