1、语法难点突击1、 基本语法快速回顾词类：分为实词(notional word)和虚词(form word)。实词都有实意，包括六类：名词 n.、代词 pron.、形容词 adj.、数词 num.、动词 v.、副词 adv.；虚词没有实意，共有四类：冠词 art.、介词 prep.、连词 conj.、感叹题 int.。句子成分：包括主、谓、宾、定、状、补和表语（主系表结构中出现） 。主语：The sun is shining in our faces.谓语：The play began at eight, so they must dine at seven.宾语：She gave a roar
2、 of pain.定语：John had a great desire to travel.状语：Alex did badly on exam. As I approached, Reid gave me a nod of greeting.补语：Hill will be declared the winner of the fight. I consider the book expensive.表语：John Stuart Mill was an early feminist.短语：包括名词短语(a university student)、动词短语(cannot believe)、形容词短
3、语(quite warm)、副词短语(hard enough) 、介词短语(at the gate) 、不定式短语(to eat three meals a day)、动名词短语(watching TV)、分词短语( Walking home, the girl was frightened by a noise.)和一些固定词组(at once)。从句：包括主语从句：How this happened is not clear to anyone.表语从句：The trouble is that I have lost his address.宾语从句：She ask me which I
4、liked best.定语从句：The man who I saw is called Smith.状语从句：A telegram came after you had gone.同位语从句：The suggestion that the new rule be adopted came from the chairman.句子：五种基本结构：1 主语+谓语：Day dawns.2 主语+谓语+宾语：Ruth understands French.3 主语+谓语+间接宾语+直接宾语： He told us the whole story.4 主语+谓语+主语补语：He died a poor
5、man.或主语+连系动词+ 表语：Toms father is a doctor.5 主语+谓语+宾语+宾语补语： He found George intelligent. 句子按结构分为三种：简单句：一个含有主语和谓语的句子；并列句：由等立连词把两个或两个以上的简单句（叫做分句）合成的句子；复合句：由关联词把主句和一个或一个以上从句合成的句子。句子按照目的或用途，又分为：陈述句、疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。2、 难句分类分析要点（例句结构较难，有余力可细看）复合从句按作用分：定语从句、同位语从句、主语从句、宾语从句和分词结构（从句的灵活形式）简单复合从句套用结构，同时使用几种从句彼此嵌套，如宾语
6、从句中包含定语从句按结构分 并列结构，和并列短语在语法功能上完全相同复杂复合从句：句子中出现省略、插入和倒装等形式（1） 定语从句解题要点：找对定语从句修饰的对象。例如：In the “soap war” between Proctor and Gamble (P&G) and Unilever, tremendous use is made of statistics to measure the dynamic difference in market resulting from the proportional to advertising, which constitutes suc
7、h a large part of their production costs before selling, so that regard their production costs as production plus advertising costs.分析：此句结构比较复杂，但主句很简单，主语为 use，谓语为 is made。use 的定语为of statistics，即 tremendous use of statistics is made of。 to measure作目的状语，resulting from为现在分词短语作 difference 的后置定语。which 引导
8、一个非限制性定语从句，修饰前面整个句子。so that 引导一个结果状语从句。译文：在宝洁和联合利华两家企业之间的“肥皂广告大战”中，大量使用了统计学知识来测量与广告投入比例对应的市场份额的动态差异，这一项在销售前的生产成本中占较大部分，所以他们把生产成本看作生产费用与广告费用之和。例如：The price system provides a seasonal pattern that encourages the holding of inventories rather than early splurging and richly rewards speculators who corr
9、ectly anticipate a crop failure and hold grain that will alleviate it.分析：这是一个主从复合句。定语从句“that encouragesand richly rewards.it”修饰先行词 a seasonal price pattern。在这个定语从句中有两个由 and 连接的并列的谓语动词encourages 和 rewards。定语从句“whoanticipate and hold”修饰先行词 speculators，其中两个由 and 连接的谓语动词 anticipate 和 hold。价格体系提供了一个季节性的价
10、格模式。这种模式不鼓励把小麦过早挥霍掉，而是鼓励进行小麦储备并且使那些能正确地判断出来年小麦歉收，并储备小麦以减轻灾荒的精明投机者大大受益。（2）名词性从句解题要点：名词性从句包括主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句和同位语从句。注意确定名词性从句的性质。注意辨别 it 充当形式主语或形式宾语句子中的真正主语或真正宾语。多数情况下，名词性从句可按原句的语序译成相应的汉语。例如：If you see an article consistently advertised, it is the surest proof I know that the article dose what is claimed
11、 for it, and that it represents good value.分析：本句 if 引导条件状语从句，主句为 it is the surest proof，proof 一词分别由省略that 的定语从句 I know 和两个 that 引导的同位语从句，第一个同位语从句中有一个 what 引导的名词性从句作 does 的宾语。译文：如果你看到一件商品不断做广告，那就是我所知道的最好证据：说明该商品名副其实，货真价实。例如：While it cannot be denied that there is no guarantee that affirmative action
12、will achieve these results, neither can it be denied that there are plausible, even powerful, sociological and economic arguments pointing to its likely success.本句主句为 neither can it be denied，it 为形式主语，其真正主语为主语从句 that there are plausible likely success。由于否定词 neither 放于句首，主句用了倒装。while 引导的让步状语从句中，第一个 t
13、hat 从句为主语从句，作让步状语从句中的真正主语，it 是形式主语；第二个 that 从句是 guarantee 的同位语从句。译文：尽管我们不可否认要使这种法案达到效果并无保障，但是也不可否认存在其可能成功的、令人信服的，甚至强有力的社会学、经济学方面的论据。例如：There is no agreement whether methodology refers to the concepts peculiar to historical work in general or to the research techniques appropriate to the various bran
14、ches of historians inquiry. 分析：本题属于同位语结构。句子“there is no agreement whether or”引导的名词性从句是 agreement 的同位语。在这个同位语从句中， methodologies 后面跟着两个并列谓语，即 refers to or (refers) to。peculiar to historical work 和 appropriate to the various branches of historians inquiry 都是形容词短语，分别修饰 concepts 和 research techniques。译文：
15、所谓方法论是指一般的历史研究中的特有概念，还是指历史探究中各个具体领域适用的研究手段，人们对此意见不一。（3）状语从句解题要点：状语从句包括表示时间、地点、原因、结果、条件、目的、让步、方式、比较等各种状语从句。根据不同的标志词（where, when, because, if）确定是哪种状语从句。注意 so that 引导的状语从句既可以表示结果，也可以表示目的。英语的时间、地点、原因等状语从句的位置比较灵活，翻译时按汉语习惯一般先译，但也有个别的可以后译。例如：But in actual practice this system breaks down in many ways, beca
16、use the organism and the environment are constantly interacting so that the environment is modified by the organism and vice versa.分析：because 引导状语从句中又包含了一个 so that 引导的状语从句。译文：但是实际操作中，这套系统在许多方面行不通，因为有机物和环境之间不断互相影响，所以环境会随着有机物的改变而改变，反之亦然。（4）分词结构例如：The spate shootings had appeared to be easing recently,
17、 however, with attacks mainly confined to tourists visiting the south of the country.本句中 with attacks mainly confined to tourists visiting the south of the country 是一个带with 的分词独立结构，起补充说明作用。现在分词短语 visiting the south of the country 作后置定语修饰 tourists。译文：然而接连不断 的枪击事件最近呈缓缓趋势，攻击的目标主要限于参观本国南部的旅游者。例如：Recogni
18、zing the growing threat HIV/AIDS poses to child survival, the agency will support efforts to identify and test methods of preventing transmission from mother to child, such as Vitamin A supplements and other promising interventions.分析：recognizing the growing threat HIV/AIDS poses to child survival 为
19、分词短语作原因状语，threat 后面为定语从句，其后省略了 that。译文：由于认识到艾滋病毒和艾滋病对儿童生命日益严重的威胁，该机构将大力支持有关部门鉴定并检验预防母亲把疾病传给孩子的方法，例如补充维生素 A 和其它有效的预防药物。（5）并列结构解题要点：并列句的特点是各分句相对独立，互不依从，靠连接词或分词连接在一起。并列句的分句中也常出现主从复合句，甚至从句套从句的情况，应注意正确分辨句子的结构。连词不只是表示“和”的意思，有时也表示目的、结果、转折、条件、对比等。例如：More than three million people live in inner London, and n
20、early five million people live in the surrounding suburban area, which is made up of formerly separate villages that have merged to form what is now called outer London.分析：全句为并列复合句。and 连接两个并列句。第二个并列句是主从复合句。which引出非限制性定语从句修饰 area，that 限定性定语从句修饰 village，which 引出名词性从句，作 form 的宾语。译文：三百多万人居住在伦敦市区，将近五百万人居
21、住在周围的郊区，这些郊区由原来分散的村庄构成，已经逐步合并形成现今的外伦敦。例如：Now, Shaw is exaggerating, but there is something in what he says, and the question is following up, for the sake of the light it throws on modern knowledge.分析：本句是由并列连词 but, and 引导的并列复合句。在第二个分句 there is something in what he says 中，关联词 what =the thing，引导名词性从句，
22、意思是 there is something true in what he says。在第三个分句中 it throws on modern knowledge 是定语从句，修饰名词light，定语从句的关系词 that 被省略，it 指代 question。成分省略语言有个节省性原则，成分省略主要是为了避免重复。一般的省略多为主语省略和谓语省略。例如：Anything from cosmic rays to radiation to diet may activate a dormant oncogene, but how remains unknown.分析：本句为 but 连接的并列句
23、，其中第二个分句的主语是一个主语从句。该主语从句的主谓宾由于与第一个分句相同，被全部省略，只剩下疑问副词 how，完整形式是：how it (代替 anything from to diet) activate a dormant oncogene.译文：任何东西，从宇宙射线到辐射直至日常饮食，都可能激活潜伏的致癌基因，但如何激活的，仍然不得而知。例如：I could accept this fact with calmness because I know that if I wasnt able to avoid a mistake, chances were that no other
24、surgeon could have, either.分析：本句主句为 I could accept this fact with calmness， because 引导原因状语从句，该从句中 that 引导的宾语从句作 know 的宾语，have 后面省略了 been able to avoid a mistake。本句采用顺序法翻译，即先翻译主句，再翻译原因状语从句。省略的部分应该补译出来。译文：我可以冷静地接受这个事实，因为我知道，如果我不能避免出错，那么其他外科大夫也难免出错。插入与分隔插入语是因为分裂了句子的结构而得名的。词术语主要从语法功能角度出发提出的，对语法形式没有多大考虑，
25、插入语一般是主谓结构或者介宾结构。插入语的作用是为了调整语气和增加补充信息，更主要的目的是为了平衡句子结构，避免头重脚轻。分隔现象其实是指这些词或短语的插入，使句子语法成分的联系被打断，句子的整体性受到冲击，从而影响了句子的理解。例如：In the Middle Ages widespread use was made of arguments from analogy, on the belief that the universe formed an ordered structure that the macrocosmic pattern of the whole is reprodu
26、ced in the microcosmic pattern of parts so that it is possible to draw inferences by analogy from one to the other.分析：这个句子比较长，我们首先要挑出此句的主、谓、宾。这句话的谓语只有两个词：was made，主语是 use，而 of arguments from analogy 是 use 的定语。正因为谓语段、定语长，为了句子的平衡，谓语 was made 便插在 use 和它的定语之间，形成分隔结构。on the belief 是介词短语，作状语。belief 后面有两个以
27、 that 引导的同位语从句：that the universe structure 和 that the macrocosmic of parts。so that 引导的是一个状语从句，表结果。译文：在中世纪，类推法的各种论点被广泛采用，这些论点基于下述观念，即宇宙形成一个有次序的结构，整体的宏观格局是部分微观格局的再现，因此，有可能通过类推法做出由此及彼的推断。例如：And numerous experiments have shown once the concept of self is changed, other things consistent with the new con
28、cept of self are accomplished easily and without strain.分析：动词 shown 后面是一个主从复合句。连词 once 引导的是宾语从句中的状语从句。宾语从句的主句是 other things strain。consistent of self 是形容词性短语作定语，修饰other things，它使宾语从句的主语和系动词分隔开。without strain 是介词短语作状语，意为“毫不费力地” ，翻译是要根据汉语习惯将隔开的部分还原出来。译文：而且大量事实表明，自我感观一旦改变，其他一些与新自我感观相一致的事情就可以轻而易举、毫不费力地完
29、成。例如：Science moves forward, they say, not so much through the insights of great men of genius as because of more ordinary things like improved techniques and tools.分析：本句属于比较结构，含有一个比较结构 not so much as“与其说不如说” 。they say 为插入语。 through the insights of great men of genius 和 because of more ordinary thing
30、s 为两个状语。 like improved techniques and tools 为介词短语作定语，修饰things。译文：他们说，科学的发展与其说源于天才伟人的真知灼见，不如说源于改进了的技术和工具等更为普通的东西。例如：A long-held view of the history of the English colonies that became the United States has been that Englands policy toward these colonies before 1763 was dictated by commercial interest
31、s and that a change to a more imperial policy, dominated by expansionist military objectives, generated the tensions that ultimately led to the American Revolution.分析：主从复合句。主语 view 和谓语 has been 之间因介词短语 of the history 及修饰colonies 一词的 that 定语从句的分割，造成主谓分隔。and 连接的两个 that 从句都是本句的表语从句。第二个表语从句由于 dominated分
32、词短语作 policy 一词的定语，造成主语change 和谓语 generated 的分隔。例句：Their rise to prominence parallels the development of sculpture itself in the US: while there had been a few talented sculptors in the US before the 1940s, it was only after 1945 -when New York was rapidly becoming the art capital of the world -that
33、major sculpture was produced in the US.分析：本句的主句为第冒号前的一句。冒号后是对主句的进一步解释。其中，有一个while 引导的让步状语从句。主句中被强调的 only after 1945 与 that被破折号之间的时间状语从句分隔。译文：他们的脱颖而出，与美国雕塑艺术的自身发展并驾齐驱：在 20 世纪 40 年代以前，美国只有少数天才雕塑家，而 1945 年以后，当纽约迅速成为世界艺术中心时，才在美国诞生了有影响力的雕塑作品。倒装倒装可分为语法倒装和修辞倒装完全倒装，主谓全部倒装语法倒装部分倒装，只把谓语一部分，通常是助动词和情态动词，置于主语之前强
34、调句子的表达重心修辞倒装 强调一种表达语气，如命令语气、假设语气（虚拟语气的倒装属于此类） 、疑问语气和否定语气例如：Among the advantages that future biochips, or “living computers”, would have over conventional semiconductor chips are that they are smaller, they do not generate as much heat, and they allow for the parallel processing of information, makin
35、g them faster than todays semiconductor devices.分析：这是一个倒装句。主语是以 that 引导的三个并列句：they are smaller, they do heat 和 they allow information，谓语动词是 are, among chips 是表语。that future chips是 advantages 的定语从句。介词 over 是 advantages 所要求的。 as much heat 是与conventional semiconductor chips 比较而言的。allow for 意为 “可以供之用” 。
36、making devices 修饰主语中的第三个句子，与前面两个无关。该句的翻译可采用两种方式：are 前面的部分用逆序法，后面的部分用顺序法。译文：与普通半导晶体片相比，未来的生物芯片或者“活计算机”具有一些优点：体积小，产生的热量少，能并行处理信息，从而使其速度比当今的半导体元件更快。例如：This is the world out of which grows the hope, for the first time in the history, of a society where there will be freedom from want and freedom from fe
37、ar.分析：句中的定语从句 out of which grows the hope是完全倒装句。主语 the hope of a society 和定语 where there will be fear 较长，置于动词 grows 之后。由于限制性定语从句 out of which grows the hop of a society 与主句关系紧密，所以采用融合法将 this is the world of a society 译成一个单句。 where 引导的定语从句太长，可用后置法译成一个单句。译文：这是历史上首次出现的一个给人以希望的世界。在这个世界上希望诞生一个没有贫困（意译，贫困来
38、自缺乏，缺乏产生欲望） 、没有暴力（暴力产生恐惧，但最好译为恐惧）的社会。例如：Across the court from the Manhattan apartment that I have occupied for the past few years is a dog that often hurls insults into the darkness, a few of which my dog refused to accept and make a tart reply.分析：这是一个完全倒装句。主语是 a dog，谓语是 is， across the court 是表语。apa
39、rtment 后有定语从句 that I years。dog 后有 that darkness 作定语从句。定语从句which my dog refused to accept and make a tart reply 的先行词是 insults。因为该句有多个定语从句，翻译时采用分译法，把句子拆成几个分局译出。译文：我过去曾在曼哈顿区的一个寓所里住过几年，就在我院子的对面有一条狗，常冲着漆黑的夜空狂吠。我院子里的狗偶尔对那条狗的叫声表示不满并回敬以尖刻的叫声。比较结构例如：This means that no sooner has he got used to one routine th
40、an he has to change to another, so that much of his time is spent neither working nor sleeping very efficiently.分析：no sooner than 的结构表示 “一就” 、 “刚便” ，意思上类似于 hardly (scarcely) when，但句子是一个比较结构，所以从句用 than 而不是 when 引导。主句为 this means，no sooner than引导了宾语从句。后半句中 so that 引导了结果状语从句。另外，as soon as与 no sooner th
41、an所表达意思相同，都表示它所指动作发生在另一个分句之前，但是 no sooner than常常含有“惊奇 ”的意思。译文：这意味着他刚习惯了一套日常安排，就得改变为另一套，因此他的大量时间都在既不能高效率地工作也不能很好地睡眠中度过。例如：Liberty is to faction what air is to fire, an ailment without which it instantly expires.分析：本句主句是 liberty is to faction。what air is to fir 是表语从句，在句中起连接作用，用来进行比较。what 可理解为 that whi
42、ch 结构，an ailment 是 faction 的同位语，定语从句 without which it instantly expires 修饰 liberty。译文：自由对于派系，如同空气对于火。没有自由的话，派系这种痼疾就不会存在。否定例如：It could not be less folly to abolish liberty, which is essential to political life, because it nourishes faction than it would be to wish the annihilation of air, which is es
43、sential to animal life, because it imparts to fire the destructive agency.分析：本句为复合句，总体上看是 could not be less folly to than it would be to构成比较结构，其中 it 为形式主语，分别代替不定式结构 to abolish liberty 和 to wish the annihilation of air。liberty 和 air 分别被定语从句 which is essential to修饰，because 引导的原因状语从句分别为 to abolish libe
44、rty 和 to wish the annihilation of air 的原因。it could not be less folly than结构，可根据双重否定专为肯定原则，将其翻译为“和一样愚蠢” 。此外，两个定语从句表面上作定语分别修饰 liberty 和 air，实际上根据句子的逻辑关系，分别解释了废除自由和希望空气灭绝一样愚蠢的原因，翻译时应当增词以体现这一关系。译文：因为自由滋生派系就废除自由，与因为空气赋予火破坏性就希望空气消失一样愚蠢。因为自由对政治生活来说是必不可少的，正如空气对于动物的生命来说是必不可少的。例如：Im in the trade and theres no
45、t a man in it who wont tell you that what I say about pearls goes.分析：本句为 and 连接的并列句。第二个句中 who 引导的定语从句修饰 man，该定语从句中 that 引导的宾语从句为 tell 的直接宾语，该宾语从句中 what I say about pearls 为主语从句作主语，谓语为 goes。本句中的否定结构为 not a man in it who wont tell，为双重否定结构，其目的是为了加强语气。译文：我是干这一行的。干这一行的人都会告诉你，我在鉴定珠宝这一行最有发言权。3、 难句阅读小技巧技巧一：
46、遇到较长的复合句时，首先要找出表达句子主要意思的部分（主句部分） 。然后再分析句中其它各种修饰成分的结构及其与句子主语、谓语的关系。像 which, that, who, whose, where 等关系代词引导的定语从句通常是对前面的某个名词或句子作进一步解释和说明的。例如：The man, as is seen in the picture, who is going up a high mountain is using a supply of oxygen which is stored those device he is carrying on his back.分析：此句的主干成
47、分为 The man is using a supply of oxygen。用 as is seen in the picture 和 who is mountain 两个从句对主语 the man 进行说明，并用后一个从句 which is back 对 a supply of oxygen 进行说明。技巧二：注意识别状语从句及起状语从句作用的其它结构（如动词不定式短语、分词短语、介词短语等） ，它们通常是对句子中的动词（特别是谓语动词）或整个句子作进一步解释和说明的。例如：Although the key to a good college is a high-quality facul
48、ty, the Carnegie study found that most colleges do very little to encourage good teaching. In fact, they do much to undermine it.分析：在这个句子中，由 although 引导的让步状语从句对后面的主句进行说明。技巧三：利用句中的标点符号来分析和理解句子。逗号、破折号及冒号之后的句子，也通常是对前面的某个名词或句子作进一步解释和说明的。例如：His face is lined with innumerable wrinkles -marks of toil and s
49、uffering in the old days.分析：此处的破折号明确表示后者对前者进行解释。技巧四：利用可以反映句子内在关系的关键词或短语来分析和理解句子。这些词和短语可按其类型分为：因果关系、对比关系、定义、分类和举例等。分析：记住表示句子关系的词语，后面在将信号词时会专门归类。技巧五：在短语和句子前后都有逗号相隔时，可以先将两个逗号之间的这一部分忽略，然后重读句子，这时句子的主谓结构可能就会一目了然。例如：British universities, groaning under the burden of a huge increase in student numbers, are warning that the tradition of a free education is at risk.分析：这个句子的主语是 British universities，谓语是 are warning，宾语是由 that 引导的一个从句。但由于主语之后出现了一个分词短语作定语来修饰 British universities，使主谓之间产生了分隔，从而句子结构也复杂起来。商业计划书
