1、MeroFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search Archaeological Sites of the Island of Meroe *UNESCO World Heritage SiteCountry SudanType CulturalCriteria ii, iii, vi, vReference 1336Region * AfricaInscription historyInscription 2011 (35th Session)* Name as inscribed on World Her
2、itage List* Region as classified by UNESCOMero is northeast of Khartoum (center right).Coordinates: 1656N 3345E16.94N 33.75EMero (also spelled Meroe12) (Meroitic: Medewi or Bedewi; Arabic: Meruwah and Meruwi, Ancient Greek: , Mere) is an ancient city on the east bank of the Nile about 6 km north-eas
3、t of the Kabushiya station near Shendi, Sudan, approximately 200 km north-east of Khartoum. Near the site are a group of villages called Bagrawiyah. This city was the capital of the Kingdom of Kush for several centuries. The Kushitic Kingdom of Mero gave its name to the Island of Mero, which was the
4、 modern region of Butana, a region bounded by the Nile (from the Atbarah River to Khartoum), the Atbarah, Ethiopia, and the Blue Nile.The city of Mero was on the edge of Butana and there were two other Meroitic cities in Butana, Musawwarat es-Sufra, and Naqa.34The site of the city of Mero is marked
5、by more than two hundred pyramids in three groups, of which many are in ruins. They are identified as Nubian pyramids because of their distinctive size and proportions.Contentshide 1 History 2 Civilization 3 Archaeology 4 World Heritage Listing 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External linksedit Hi
6、storyMero was the southern capitol of the Napata/Meroitic Kingdom, that spanned the period c. 800 BC - c. 350 AD. According to partially deciphered Meroitic texts, the name of the city was Medewi or Bedewi (Trk, 1998).Excavations revealed evidence of important, high ranking Kushite burials, from the
7、 Napata Period (c. 800 - c. 280 BC) in the vicinity of the settlement called the Western cemetery.The culture of Mero developed from the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, which originated in Kush. The importance of the town gradually increased from the beginning of the Meroitic Period, especial
8、ly from the reign of Arrakkamani (c. 280 BC) when the royal burial ground was transferred to Mero from Napata (Jebel Barkal).Relief of a ruler, a Candace of Mero named Kandake AmanitoreNear East in 200 BC, showing the Kingdom of Meroe and its neighbours.Romes capture of Egypt led to border clashes a
9、nd expansion by both Mero and Rome.5 It appears that during the skirmishes that ensued, Meroe often came out the better, sacking settlements in and near Aswan, even looting a head from a statue of the emperor Augustus and burying it under their temple steps6 Back and forth conflict eventually led to
10、 both sides meeting at the Island of Samos, where a peace treaty (that was surprisingly favorable to the Kushites) had been reached through emperor Augustus. Meroe eventually settled down to a healthy trading relationship with Rome and the Mediterranean.citation needed However, the kingdom of Meroe
11、began to fade as a power by the 1st or 2nd century AD, sapped by the war with Roman Egypt and the decline of its traditional industries.7Meroe is mentioned succinctly in the 1st century AD Periplus of the Erythraean Sea:“2. On the right-hand coast next below Berenice is the country of the Berbers. A
12、long the shore are the Fish-Eaters, living in scattered caves in the narrow valleys. Farther inland are the Berbers, and beyond them the Wild-flesh-Eaters and Calf-Eaters, each tribe governed by its chief; and behind them, farther inland, in the country towards the west, there lies a city called Mer
13、oe.“Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap.2The last period of the city is marked by the victory stele of an unnamed ruler of Aksum (almost certainly Ezana) erected at the site of Mero; from his description, in Greek, that he was “King of the Aksumites and the Omerites,“ (i.e. of Aksum and Himyar) it
14、is likely this king ruled sometime around 330. Two more inscriptions in Geez script have been found on nearby pyramids; it is uncertain whether they are contemporary with the royal stele, or belong to a later date.edit CivilizationMeroitic scriptMero was the base of a flourishing kingdom whose wealt
15、h was due to a strong iron industry, and international trade involving India and China.8 So much metalworking went on in Mero, through the working of bloomeries and possibly blast furnaces, that it has even been called “the Birmingham of Africa“ because of its vast production and trade of iron to th
16、e rest of Africa, and other international trade partners.At the time, iron was one of the most important metals worldwide, and Meroitic metalworkers were among the best in the world. Mero also exported textiles and jewelry. Their textiles were based on cotton and working on this product reached its
17、highest achievement in Nubia around 400 BC. Furthermore, Nubia was very rich in gold. It is possible that the Egyptian word for gold, nub, was the source of name of Nubia. Trade in “exotic“ animals from farther south in Africa was another feature of their economy.The Egyptian import, the water-movin
18、g wheel, the sakia, was used to move water, in conjunction with irrigation, to increase crop production.9At the peak, the rulers of Mero controlled the Nile valley north to south over a straight line distance of more than 1,000 km (620 mi).10The King of Mero was an autocrat ruler who shared his auth
19、ority only with the Queen Mother, or Candace. However, the role of the Queen Mother remains obscure. The administration consisted of treasurers, seal bearers, heads of archives, and chief scribes, among others.By the 3rd century BC a new indigenous alphabet, the Meroitic, consisting of twenty-three
20、letters, replaced Egyptian script. The Meroitic script is an alphabetic script originally derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs, used to write the Meroitic language of the Kingdom of Mero/Kush. It was developed in the Napatan Period (about 700 - 300 BC), and first appears in the 2nd century BC. For a ti
21、me, it was also possibly used to write the Nubian language of the successor Nubian kingdoms.11Although the people of Mero also had southern deities such as Apedemak, the lion-son of Sekhmet (or Bast, depending upon the region), they also continued worshipping Egyptian deities they had brought with t
22、hem, such as Amun, Tefnut, Horus, Isis, Thoth, and Satis, though to a lesser extent.edit ArchaeologyFor a list of pyramids and their owners, see Pyramids of Meroe (Begarawiyah)Plan of the North pyramid field at Mero.The site of Mero was discovered in 1821 by the French mineralogist Frdric Cailliaud
23、(17871869), who published an illustrated in-folio describing the ruins. Some treasure-hunting excavations were executed on a small scale in 1834 by Giuseppe Ferlini, who discovered (or professed to discover) various antiquities, chiefly in the form of jewelry, now in the museums of Berlin and Munich
24、.The ruins were examined more carefully in 1844 by Karl Richard Lepsius, who brought many plans, sketches, and copies, besides actual antiquities, to Berlin.Further excavations were carried on by E. A. Wallis Budge in the years 1902 and 1905, the results of which are recorded in his work, The Egypti
25、an Sudan: its History and Monuments (London, 1907). Troops furnished by Sir Reginald Wingate, governor of Sudan, made paths to and between the pyramids, and sank shafts.It was found that the pyramids were commonly built over sepulchral chambers, containing the remains of bodies, either burned, or bu
26、ried without being mummified. The most interesting objects found were the reliefs on the chapel walls, already described by Lepsius, which present the names and representations of their queens, Candaces, or the Nubian Kentakes, some kings, and some chapters of the Book of the Dead; some stelae with
27、inscriptions in the Meroitic language; and some vessels of metal and earthenware. The best of the reliefs were taken down stone by stone in 1905, and set up partly in the British Museum, and partly in the museum at Khartoum.In 1910, in consequence of a report by Archibald Sayce, excavations were com
28、menced in the mounds of the town, and in the necropolis, by John Garstang, on behalf of the University of Liverpool. Garstang discovered the ruins of a palace and several temples built by the Meroite rulers.edit World Heritage ListingIn June 2011, the Archeological Sites of Mero were listed by UNESC
29、O as World Heritage Sites.12edit See also Meroitic alphabetedit Notes1. Meroe, Encyclopdia Britannica, v.15, p.197, Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., William Benton, London, 1969.2. Meroe, Encyclopedia Americana, v.18, p.677, Encyclopedia Americana Corporation, New York, 1961.3. “The Island of Meroe“, UN
30、ESCO World Heritage4. Osman Elkhair and Imad-eldin Ali, Ancient Meroe Site: Naqa and Musawwarat es-Sufra (recent photographs)5. In 23 BC the Roman governor of Egypt, Publius Petronius, invaded Nubia in response to a Nubian attack on southern Egypt, pillaging the north of the region and sacking Napat
31、a (22 BC) before returning north.6. “Bronze head of Augustus“. British Museum. 1999. http:/www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/gr/b/bronze_head_of_augustus.aspx. Retrieved 2008-06-14.7. “Nubia“, BBC World Service8. Lecture 30: ANCIENT AFRICA Lectures contributed by Steve Stoff
32、eran and Sarah Wood, Purdue University9. Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda, International Dictionary of Historic Places10. Adams, Nubia, p. 302.11. “Meroe: Writing“, Digital Egypt, University College, London12. “World Heritage Sites: Mere“. http:/whc.unesco.org/en/list/1336/multiple=1 sou
33、thern region became known to them as “Kush“- trade links continued, but the two realms separated politically- by 730 BCE, new rulers of independent Kush felt strong enough to invade Egypt; seized Thebes- ruled Egypt for 60 years-a period known as the XXVth (“Ethiopian/Nubian“) dynasty- following Ass
34、yrian invasion of Lower Egypt (ca. 670 BCE), withdrew to Nubia- moved their administrative center further south, from Napata to Meroe, ca. 550 BCE see companion lecture on Meroe by Sarah Wood, below- primary religious complexes, however, remained at Napata for several centuries- note the continued p
35、ervasive Egyptian influence: temple of Amun Re- the priesthood remained very powerful; rulers had to present themselves at Napata for sanction- real development of iron technology in Meroe (probably in response to encounter with Assyrians)- the region of Meroe supported agriculture and herding very
36、well (better than around Napata)* also very well situated for trade (gold, ostrich feathers, ebony, ivory, leopard skins, elephants, iron), either across the desert to Egypt or via Red Sea port to several destinations (especially during the period of Greek/Roman control of Egypt)- eventually, distin
37、ctive features of Kushite civilization emerged, particularly after the move to Meroe:- local language (Meroitic) replaced Egyptian as language of court- new alphabetic script developed (remains undeciphered today)- innovations on traditional Egyptian religion: lion god, Apedemek (lions head on body
38、of snake)- distinctive art: portrayals of tropical African animals on art objects, pottery, public sculptures- distinctive pottery style (even some continuity with ancient Nubian practice)- new style of pyramids: small, unpointed; erected much later than Egyptian pyramids- also importatnt to note th
39、e distinctive economic and political organization of Kushite society:- peasants and herders were more spread out; thus, rulers were not able to exert as much direct control over their subjects as had been the case in Egypt- slightly less autocratic than Egypt; nobility inevitably clashed with Romans
40、- 23 BCE, Meroitic army attacked border town of Syrene; stole several statues of Augustus* bronze head of Augustus was unearthed in excavation at Meroe in 1912- Petronius led a retaliatory campaign- reached Napata; took several thousand captives, which he then sold into slavery- however, relations w
41、ith Rome eventually normalized, and the two powers enjoyed peaceful coexistence for several centuries, with special emphasis on Red Sea trade, even into Indian OceanIV. Decline- kingdom declined by CE 300; the city of Meroe itself was abandoned between CE 300-350- major factors in its decline includ
42、ed:- over-exploitation of the environment; the land became agriculturally untenable- iron smelting had consumed most of the forests for charcoal; widespread erosion ensued- decline of Roman power in Egypt affected Meroe as well; demand for luxury goods fell- new power of Aksum took control of the Re
43、d Sea trade, and even invaded region of Meroe ca. CE 350, although by that time there was not much left to conquerAKSUM (CE 100-700)I. Wresting Power from Meroe- ca. 500 BCE, peoples from southwestern Arabia migrated across Red Sea- established farming settlements and trading centers on African coas
44、t (particularly Adulis), esp. in order to take advantage of ivory trade for Persia and India- came to dominate the Red Sea trade, already in the period of Greek (Ptolemaic) control of Egypt- this facilitated the establishment of their independent inland state at Aksum- eventually edged out Meroe for
45、 domination of Red Sea it also probably came at least partially in response to increased raids by Berber nomads during periods of drought- most important in the story of Ghanas rise to power, however, was the advantageous geographical position the Sonnike enjoyed vis-a-vis the trans-Sahara trade: th
46、eir region served as an ideal middle ground for exchanges of desert salt, local surplus grain, and gold mined in the lands to the south; thus, they became the classic “middlemen“- prosperity really picked up in the 5th century with the introduction of the camel in trans-Sahara trade; hence the conco
47、mitant rise in Ghanas political power at this timeII. Land of Gold- the gold trade in particular expanded exponentially by the 9th century, as consolidated Islamic states in the north (particularly along the Mediterranean coast) were in need of large quantities of gold to mint coins- Ghana eventuall
48、y gained an exotic reputation throughout the Islamic world; it was even known for its fabulous wealth as far away as Baghdad- we have several descriptions of Ghana by Arab geographers and writers from the 8th-11th centuries- amazingly, the Sonnike managed to keep the source of its gold (i.e., the lo
49、cation of the southern gold fields and the peoples who owned and worked them-and who traded it for desert salt from Ghanaian merchants) a secret from inquisitive Muslim traders for several centuries- as had been the case in Aksum, the rulers of Ghana grew wealthy from taxation on trade; interestingly, however, they only taxed salt, not gold; it is also worth noting that only gold dust was allowed to be traded on the market; all solid nuggets belonged to
