1、1第一章 绪论1/ What is linguistics? 什么是语言学？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics语言学的研究范畴The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通语言学)The study of so
2、unds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics. （语音学）The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系学）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形态学）The study of how morphemes and words
3、 are combined to form sentences is called syntax. （句法学）The study of meaning in language is called semantics. （语义学）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （语用学）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社会语言学）The study of language with reference
4、 to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理语言学）The study of applications (as the recovery of speech ability) is generally known as applied linguistics. （应用语言学） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teachin
5、g and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branches include anthropological linguistics, （人类语言学） neurological linguistics, （神经语言学） mathematical linguistics, （数字语言学） and computational linguistics. （计算机语言学）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics语言学研究中的几对
6、基本概念Prescriptive and descriptive 规定与描写If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs f
7、rom traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is “correct” or not.Synchronic and diachronic 共时和历时The description of a language at some point in time is a
8、 synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study is more important.Speech and writing 口头语与书面语Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken form of language a
9、s primary, but not the written form. Reasons are: 1. Speech precedes writing; 2. There are still many languages that have only the spoken form; 3. In terms of function, the spoken language is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of communication than the wri
10、tten.Langue and parole 语言和言语The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between langue and parole early 20th century.Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Saussure made
11、 the distinction in order to single out one aspect of language for serious study. He believes what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole, to discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.Competence and performance 语言
12、能力和语言运用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.He defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. He believes the task of the linguists is to discover and specify th
13、e language rules. Displacement 语言的移位性Displacement means that language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in far-away places.Cultural transmission 语言的文化传递性While human capacity for language has a genetic basis,
14、i.e., we were born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned anew. This indicates that language is culturally transmitted. It is passed down from one generation to the next through teaching and learnin
15、g, rather than by instinct.Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学Definition 定义Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 形态学是语法的一个分支，研究词的内部结构和构词规则。Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or deriv
16、ational morphology. The former studies the inflections and the latter is the study of word formation.形态学可分为两个分支科学：屈折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。前者研究词的屈折变化，后者研究词的构成。1. Morpheme 语素The smallest meaningful unit of language 语言最小的意义单位。The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical mean
17、ing.语素表达的意义有两种：词汇意义和语法意义。22. Types of morphemes 语素的分类a) Free morphemes 自由语素Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.自由语素是独立的意义单位，能够独自自由使用，当然也可以和其它语素结合使用。b) Bound morphemes 黏着语素 Bound morphe
18、mes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.黏着语素是那些不能单独使用，而必须和其它语素自由语素或黏着语素结合在一起以形成一个单词的语素。3. Types of bound morphemes 黏着语素的分类Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes 词根和词缀。A root is often see
19、n as part of word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.词根被看作是词的一部分，它有清楚、明确的意思，但不能单独存在，它必须和另一个词根或词缀组合构成单词。Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational 屈折词缀和派生词缀Inflectional affixes or infle
20、ctional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The English inflectional affixes include:屈折词缀或屈折语素表明各种不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如：数、时态、形容词和副词的级和格。现在英语中的屈折词缀包括：-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns 表示名词复数-(e)s, indicating third person sing
21、ular, present tense 表示现在时的第三人称单数-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons 表示过去时-ing, indicating progressive aspect 表示进行时-er, indicating comparative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词比较级-est, indicating superlative degree of adj. and adverbs 表示形容词和副词最高级-s, indicating the possessive case of
22、nouns 表示名词的所有格Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative. The existing form to which a derivational affix
23、 can be added is called a stem. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.派生词缀加在一个原有的单词上以构成一个新词。这是英语中的一个很常见的构成新词的方式，这样的方式叫派生法，用派生法构成的新词叫派生词。能够加上一个派生词缀的原有语素叫做词干。词干可以是一个黏着词根、自由语素或者本身就是一个派生词。实例：Tolerate 词根 toler- 词缀-ateQuickly 自由语素 quick 词缀-lyCarelessness 自由语素 care 词缀-less 形
24、成的派生词careless 词缀-nessAffixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes and suffixes 前缀和后缀Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exception are the prefixes “be-” and “en (m)-”.前缀改变词干的意思，但通常不改变原词的词性。 “be-” 和“en (m)-”是例外。Chapter 4 Syntax 句
25、法学1 What is Syntax?Syntax studies the sentence structure of language. The term syntax came originally from Greek. It literally meant arrangement. It means that sentences are structured according to a particular arrangement of words. Well-arranged sentences are considered grammatical sentences. Gramm
26、atical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.句法学研究语言的句子结构。该术语来自希腊语，字意是排列。句子是根据一种特定的排列词的方式构成的。排列正确的句子被认为是合乎语法的句子。合乎语法的句子是根据一套句法规则构成的。句法是一个规则系统。2. Syntax as a system of rules 句法是规则系统Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form gr
27、ammatical sentences. A sentence is considered grammatical when it is in agreement with the grammatical knowledge in the mind of native speakers. Universally found in the grammars f all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker kno
28、wn as linguistic competence.The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统，句子由单词组合而成。句子的语法性是指句子的合成必须符合操本族语者头脑中的语法知识。任何一种语言的句法规则都包含了说话者的头脑中的语言知识系统
29、（称为语言能力） 。任何语言的句法规则的数量是有限的，但说话者可以理解和表达的句子的数量是无限的。3. The basic components of a sentence 句子的构成A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject（主语）and its predica
30、te（谓语）which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.句子是一个结构独立和完整的语法单位，这一单位通常由一些单词组成一个完整的陈述句、问句或命令。一个句子至少包含一个主语和一个谓语，而谓3语又包含一个限定动词或一个动词词组。The referring expression（被指称的对象）, such as a person, a place, a thing, an idea, or an event, is grammatically called subject. A subject is usually a noun or a noun
31、phrase. The part of sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called predicate. A finite verb, informally called the main verb of a sentence, expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person, number, tense
32、and mood.主语是指句子中被指称的对象，如人、物、事、概念等。主语通常由名词或名词词组构成。谓语是指对句子中主语进行表述或判断的部分。谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。限定动词常被称为句子的中心动词，表述存在、动作或出现，限定动词送人称、数、时态和情态的限制。4Types of sentence 句子的类型a) The simple sentence 简单句A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own se
33、ntence. 简单句由一个子句构成，该子句包含一个主语和一个谓语，且独立构成句子。b) The coordinate sentence 并列句A coordinate sentence contains two clause joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as “and”but”or”. 并列句包含两个子句，由 and, but, or 等并列连词连接。c) The complex sentence 复合句A complex sentence contains two or more clause
34、s, one of which is incorporated into the other. That is, the two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. The incorporated, or subordinate clause is normally called an embedded clause, and the clause into which it is embedded is called a matrix clause.复合句包含两个或两
35、个以上的子句，其中一个被并入另一个句子。复合句中两个句子的地位是不同的，一个句子从属于另一个句子。被并入或是从属的子句通常被称为子句，而包含子句的子句被称为主句Chapter 5 Semantics 语义学1. What is semantics？什么是语义学？Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.语义学可定义为对语言意义的研究。2. Some views concerning the study of meaning语义研究的几种主要理论1) The naming theory 命名论It wa
36、s proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So words are just names or labels for things.命名论是最原始的语义理论，是古希腊学者柏拉图提出的。该理论把词看作是该词所指事物的名称或标记。2)
37、The conceptualist view 意念论The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论认为，语言形式及其所代表的对象之间（即语言与现实世界之间）没有直接联系；确切地说，在理解语义时，是通过大脑中存在意念这一中
38、介物来联系的。3) Contextualism 语境论Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.语境论以这样的假设为基础：人们可以从显而易见的语境中推知或归纳出语义。语境有两种：情景语境和语言语境。语境论认为语言的意义离不开使用语言
39、的语境，语义不是抽象的，它存在于语境之中，它来自语境，取决于语境。4) Behaviorism 行为主义论Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.语义
40、的行为主义论和语义的语境论有相似之处，它也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意义存在于语言使用者在交际过程中对听到话语的反应。3. Sense and reference 意义和所指They are two related but different aspects of meaning. 它们是词汇意义的既相互联系又有所不同的两个方面。1) Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of th
41、e linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compliers are interested in.意义关心的是语言形式的内在意义。它是语言形式所有特征的总和，它是抽象且脱离语境的。它是词典编写者们所感兴趣的语义方面。简单地说，意义是词汇内在的，抽象的，游离于语境之外的意义。2) Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deal
42、s with the relationship between the linguistic element and non-linguistic world of experience.所指是语言形式在现实世界中所指称的东西；涉及语言成分和非语言的经验世界的关系。简单地说，所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。4. Major sense relations 主要意义关系1） Synonymy 同义关系Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meanin
43、g are called synonyms.同义现象指的是语义的相同或相近。词义相近的词叫同义词。According to the way they differ, 4synonyms can be divided into the following groups:a) Dialectal synonyms synonyms used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English langu
44、age.方言同义词 用在不同地域方言中的同义词。英国英语和美国英语是英语的两大地理变体。示例：英国英语 美国英语Autumn fallChapter 6 Pragmatics 语用学1. What is pragmatics?什么是语用学？Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. As the process of communication is essentially a process of c
45、onveying meaning in a certain context, pragmatics can also be regarded as a kind of meaning study. It places the study of meaning in the context in which language is used.语用学研究的是说某种语言的人怎样用句子去实现成功的交际。由于交际的过程从本质来说是在一定的语境中表达意义的过程，因而语用学的本质是一种意义研究。它是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。2. Pragmatics and semantics 语用学和语义学
46、Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning, but they are different. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning, the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics
47、; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.语用学和语义学都是对意义的语言学研究，但两者是不同的。它们的本质区别在于研究意义时是否考虑了语言使用的语境。没有考虑到语境进行的研究就没有超出传统语义学的研究范围；相反，考虑到语境进行的研究就属于语用学的研究范围。3. Context 语境Context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted b
48、y the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. 语境是语言的语用研究中不可缺少的概念。它一般被理解为说话者和听话者所共有的知识。The shared knowledge is of two types: the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situatio
49、n in which linguistic communication is taking place.共有的知识包括他们所使用的语言方面的知识和双方对世界的认识，包括对世界的总的认识和对正在进行的语言交际所处的环境的具体认识。4. Sentence meaning and utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义The meaning of a sentence is abstract, and de-contextualized, while utterance meaning is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.句子的意义是抽象的，非语境化的，而话语的意义是具体的，受语境制约的。话语意义基于句子意义；它是一个句子的
