1、摘要:文章提出“内部被动句”和“外部被动句”概念并从四个方面进行论述。被动句的历史溯源;“V +NP +Prep”动词习语的结构分析;“内部被动句”和“外部被动句”转换的特点;被动转换的语义限制。最后强调“内部被动句”和“外部被动句”是英语被动转换中比较独特的现象,应谨慎使用。关键词:被动转换;内部被动句;外部被动句;动词习语 一、被动句溯源典型的被动结构为“NP+be+V-en+by+NP”。古英语时期就存在被动句,但其用途没有今天这样广泛。被动句是如何逐步演变的,让我们考察一下英语被动句的发展史。根据 D. Denison 理论,英语被动句的发展大致经历了四个主要阶段: 1)直接被动, 2
2、)间接被动, 3)介词被动, 4)复杂介词被动。1. 直接被动(Direct Passive)古英语(Old English)时期,许多及物动词仅带一个宾语,这个宾语可以是与格(dative)或宾格(accusative)。当被动转换时,原主动句中的格形式在被动句中保持不变。(1)But that one (DAT) may be helped very quickly by his teacher.2.间接被动(Indirect Passive)到中古英语(early Middle English)时期,名词的与格和宾格不再对立,它们的区别逐渐消失,可以互相替换。被动转换时,与格或宾格变成主
3、格(nominative)。这样,间接被动开始出现。常用的动词有:“please, help, thank, offer”等。(2)a. The girl (DAT) was offered a watch.b. The girl (NOM) was offered a watch.c. Her was offered a watch.d. She was offered a watch.(2)d 句的出现,标志着间接被动的开始。3.介词被动(Prepositional Passive)当不及物动词和介词一起组成介词动词(prepositional verb)时,它的作用相当于一个及物动词,后
4、可接 NP 作宾语。结构可分析为: VP V laugh at NP Jim(3)Jim was laughed a.t Lightfoot 认为,介词被动出现于现代早期英语(early Mod E)时期,约 15世纪-16 世纪。Visser 认为,介词被动出现于 16 世纪。4.复杂介词被动(Complex Prepositional Passive)当“V +NP + prep”作为一个整体,起及物动词作用时,后可接 NP 作宾语。这一结构可分析为: VP V set fire to NP the school(4) The school was set fire to.Denison
5、指出,复杂介词被动的出现要比介词被动的出现晚 150 年左右, Lieber 甚至认为,真正的复杂介词被动出现时期是 18 世纪-19 世纪。虽然被动结构演变的具体时间很难准确界定,但它们发展的过程是清楚的,时间的顺序也是明确的。了解被动句的发展史,对我们深入理解被动结构是大有裨益的。 二、动词结构分析“内部被动句”和“外部被动句”都由相同的多词动词(multi-word verb)形式“V+NP+prep”转换而成的。动词结构对这一多词动词的不同分析理解,是产生内部被动句转换或外部被动句转换的主要原因。1.直接成分分析“V +NP +Prep”中的动词、名词具有独立的词汇意义和语法意义,可分
6、别起及物动词和直接宾语作用,介词与其后的 NP 组成介词短语。(5) Mary found fault with John.可分析为:a. NP1Mary VP V find NP2 fault PP with NP3 John2.动词习语分析“V +NP + prep”结构整体作为一个动词习语,相当于一个动词,起及物动词作用,后可接 NP 作宾语。例(5)可分析为:(5) b. NP1Mary VP V find fault with NP3 John 三、转换形式比较1.内部被动句(Inner Passive)根据直接成分分析,内部被动句的转换是:NP1+V+NP2+prep+NP3NP2
7、+be+V-en+prep+NP3(+by+NP1).例(5)a 可转换成(6)(6) Fault was found with John.(7)a. They have taken careful note of your remarks.b.Careful note has been taken of your remarks.c. * Careful note of your remarks has been taken.(8)a. He made effective use of aid sent from overseas.b.Effective use was made of ai
8、d sent from overseas.c. * Effective use of aid sent from overseas was made.但值得注意的是,当采用内部被动句时,介词短语(例(7)c, of your remarks, (8)c, of aid)要置于被动态动词之后,不能把它们看成是 NP 的后置修饰语。内部被动句属于一般被动句范畴,与“直接被动”性质相同,古英语就有被动,历史悠久,因此,它属于正式语体。2.外部被动句(Outer Passive)根据动词习语分析,外部被动句的转换是:NP1+VP(V+NP2+prep)+NP3NP3+be+V-en+NP2+prep(
9、+by+NP1)例(5)b 可转换为(9)(9)John was found fault with.(10)a. You must pay attention to your pronunciation.b.Your pronunciation must be paid attention to.(11)a. We should not give way to threats and bullying.b.Threats and bullying should not be given way to.外部被动句以介词宾语作为主语,属于“复杂介词被动”。它出现较“直接被动”晚,属于非正式语体。
10、四、词汇语义限制“V+NP+prep”多词动词,经长期使用,逐步固定,大多已经成为动词习语(verbal idiom)。这种动词习语,结构紧密,内涵丰富,使用广泛,表现力强。根据这些动词习语的语义特征,在被动转换时,有以下四种语义限制。1)只有内部被动句, 2)只有外部被动句, 3)有内部和外部两种被动句, 4)无被动句。1.只有内部被动句语言是发展变化的,英语成语有变体,动词习语也不例外。当动词习语的结构相对松散时,其中的名词前可加形容词或限定词进行修饰限制,这类动词习语大多有内部被动句。常用的 Adj 包括: carefu,l effective, fresh, good, grea,t
11、strong, serious, terrible 等。常用的 Det 有: al,l some, little, more, much, too, any, no 等。(12)a. They cast serious doubt on his motives.b.Serious doubt was cast on his motives.c. * His motives were cast serious doubt on.(13)a. He is making a fresh attempt on the land speech record this year.b.A fresh att
12、empt is being made on the land speech record this year.c. *The land speech record this year is being made a fresh attempt on.(14)a. They attach (some, little, no) importance to education.b.(Some, little, no ) importance is attached to education.c. * Education is attached (some, little, no) importanc
13、e to.能进行内部被动句转换的动词习语还有: do justice to, give credence to, keep tabs on, keep an eye on, lay emphasis on, lose trace o,f putpressure on, raise an objection to, shed tears over, take the opportunity of 等。2.只有外部被动句当动词习语结构非常紧密,形成一个整体,起及物动词作用。一般情况下,它的名词既不能被形容词或限定词修饰,也不能转换到句首作为主语。这类动词习语仅有外部被动句。(15)a. We lo
14、st sight of our goal.b.Our goal was lost sight of. c.* Sight was lost of our goal.(16)a. They were making fun of her.b.She was being made fun of.c. * Fun was being made of her.(17)a. She set fire to the house.b.The house was set fire to.c.* Fire was set to the house.这类动词习语数量较多,如: catch sighto,f give
15、 the lie to, keep track o,f keep pace o,f lay claim to, lay hold o,f make love to, make a fool o,f pay court to, set eyes on, take accountof 等。3.有内部和外部两种被动句具有内部和外部两种被动句转换的动词习语数量有限,语义上受到严格限制。这些动词习语一方面与只有内部被动句的动词习语性质相似,即名词前可用形容词或限定词修饰或限制,可进行内部被动句转换;另一方面又与只有外部被动句的动词习语性质相似,动词习语可整体使用,相当于一个及物动词,可进行外部被动句转换
16、。(18)a. They made good use of the extra time.b.Good use was made of the extra time. (内部被动句)c.The extra time was made good use of (外部被动句)(19)a. She takes good care of my books.b.Good care is taken of my books. (内部被动句)c.My books are taken good care of (外部被动句)(20)a. The governor made an example of thes
17、e prisoners.b.An example was made of these prisoners. (内部被动句)c.These prisoners were made an example of (外部被动句)(21)a. We take strong exception to the attack on Mr. Mackay.b.Strong exception is taken to the attack on Mr. Mackay. (内部被动句)c.The attack on Mr. Mackay is taken strong exception to. (外部被动句)一种
18、结构有两种被动转换形式,这是英语中比较独特的语言现象。但在使用时,应根据语境、语体、话语重心、主位-述位关系等因素综合考虑。内部被动句属于正式语体,外部被动句属于非正式语体。能用于两种被动句的动词主要是由 make, take, pay 等少数几个动词组成的动词习语。主要有:make use of, make a fuss of, make an example of, make a habit of, make a mess of ,make mention of, pay attention to, pay tribute to, see much/little of, take adva
19、ntage of, take exception to, take note of, take care of, take notice of 等。4.无被动句并不是所有的“V+NP+Prep”结构都有被动转换。有些动词习语的结构更加紧密,成凝固状(frozen),它既没有内部被动句,也没有外部被动句。(22)a. She lost patience with the secretary.b.* Patience was lost with the secretary. (内部被动句)c.* The secretary was lost patience with. (外部被动句)(23)a.
20、 He shook hands with us.b.* Hands were shaken with us. (内部被动句)c.* We were shaken hands with. (外部被动句)没有被动句形式的动词习语主要有: bear witness to, cross swords with, curry favor with, find favor with, give birth to, give ear to, keep company with, make friends with, rub shoulders with, shake hands with, take lea
21、ve of, take refuge in 等。问题讨论以上四种分类仅是初步的讨论,可供进一步研究。但必须指出动词习语的语义限制是非常复杂的,国内外专家有不同的意见,即使英语词典也有不同的分析归类,有的甚至是互相矛盾的。试比较权威的 ODCIE 和 CaGEL 两部词典(说明:ODCIE 用 pass 指直接宾语被动,即内部被动;用 pass(o)指介词宾语被动,即外部被动。CaGEL 用 ordinary 指直接宾语被动,用 prepositional 指介词宾语被动,用 either type 指两种被动均可)。 五、结束语本文系统介绍了英语被动的四个发展阶段,分析了“V +NP +Pre
22、p”动词结构的句法特点和语义限制,比较了“内部被动句”和“外部被动句”转换的句法特征。“内部被动句”和“外部被动句”是英语被动转换中比较独特的现象。能否进行内部被动句或外部被动句转换,一方面受动词习语本身的语义限制,另一方面也是约定俗成的,不可盲目仿效或类推。 参考文献：1L. J. Brinton. The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction M. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co, 2002.2D. Denison. English Historical Syntax:
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