1、Applying a 4D multiscale in vivo tumor growth model to the exploration of radiotherapy scheduling: The effects of weekend treatment gaps and p53 gene status on the response of fast growing solid tumorsDimitra D. Dionysiou1,2 and Georgios S. Stamatakos11In SilicoOncology Group, Laboratory of Microwav
2、es and Fiber Optics, Institute of Communication and Computer Systems, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, GR-157 80 Zografos, Greece2Department of Mathematics, School of Applied Sciences, National Technical University of Athens, GR-157 80 Zografos,
3、 GreeceCorrespondence: Dr. Georgios Stamatakos, In Silico Oncology Group, Laboratory of Microwaves and Fiber Optics, Institute of Communication and Computer Systems, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, GR-157 80 Zografos, Greece. Tel: +302107722288
4、, Fax: +302107723557, Email: gestamcentral.ntua.gr .This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).This article has been cited by other articles in PMC.ABSTRACTThe present pape
5、r aims at demonstrating clinically oriented applications of the multiscale four dimensional in vivo tumor growth simulation model previously developed by our research group. To this end the effect of weekend radiotherapy treatment gaps and p53 gene status on two virtual glioblastoma tumors differing
6、 only in p53 gene status is investigated in silico. Tumor response predictions concerning two rather extreme dose fractionation schedules (daily dose of 4.5 Gy administered in 3 equal fractions) namely HART (Hyperfractionated Accelerated Radiotherapy weekend less) 54 Gy and CHART (Continuous HART) 5
7、4 Gy are presented and compared. The model predictions suggest that, for the same p53 status, HART 54 Gy and CHART 54 Gy have almost the same long term effects on locoregional tumor control. However, no data have been located in the literature concerning a comparison of HART and CHART radiotherapy s
8、chedules for glioblastoma. As non small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) may also be a fast growing and radiosensitive tumor, a comparison of the model predictions with the outcome of clinical studies concerning the response of NSCLC to HART 54 Gy and CHART 54 Gy is made. The model predictions are in acc
9、ordance with corresponding clinical observations, thus strengthening the potential of the model.Keywords:simulation, radiotherapy, p53, fractionation, HART, CHART, glioblastomaINTRODUCTIONThe importance of efficient modeling of biological phenomena related to tumor response to radiotherapy is nowada
10、ys widely accepted. During the past four decades researchers have enhanced the understanding of tumor growth as well as tumor response to radiation therapy by means of various simulation models. Representative examples drawn from the extensive corresponding literature have been given in (Stamatakos
11、et al. 2002, Dionysiou et al. 2004). The need for novel multi-disciplinary computational models simulating tumor growth and response to therapy has been stressed by many researchers.The aim of the present paper is to present comparative results of a recently developed model of in vivo tumor growth a
12、nd response to irradiation. Emphasis is placed on weekend treatment gaps in conjunction with p53 gene status. The model is based on the available imaging, histopathologic and genetic data of the patient and numerous fundamental biological mechanisms are incorporated and explicitly described. The lon
13、g-term goal of this work is twofold: the development of a computer tool for getting insight into cancer biology and of an advanced patient-specific decision support system.A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE IN SILICO MODELIn the following paragraphs a brief outline of the in silico model is presented through th
14、e consideration of the glioblastoma (GB) paradigm. Two of the main reasons for the GB consideration have been the availability of adequate imaging data and the existence of reliable molecular-radiobiological data for two glioblastoma lines differing only in p53 status.In the general case, the availa
15、ble imaging, histopathologic and genetic data of the patient are appropriately collected. The clinician delineates the tumor and its metabolic subregions by using a dedicated computer tool. In the case of radiotherapy, the distribution of the absorbed dose in the region of interest is also acquired.
16、 Random number generators are used in order to simulate the statistical nature of various phenomena. For a detailed description refer to (Stamatakos et al. 2002; Dionysiou et al. 2004). For the purpose of the 3D reconstruction and visualization the 3D visualization package AVS/Express is used (Diony
17、siou et al. 2003).A three-dimensional discretizing mesh covers the region of interest. The elementary cubic volume of the mesh is called “Geometrical Cell (GC)”. During the simulation procedure the geometrical mesh is scanned every T units of time. In each time step, the updated state of a given GC
18、is determined on the basis of a number of algorithms describing the behavior of the cells constituting the tumor, which are briefly presented in the following paragraphs. Each GC of the mesh initially accommodates a Number of Biological Cells (NBC). NBC apparently depends on the chosen size of the G
19、C and determines the quantization error of the model. Each GC of the mesh belonging to the tumor contains biological cells, which are distributed in a number of “classes” (compartments), each one characterized by the phase in which its cells are found (within or out of the cell cycle: G1, S, G2, M,
20、G0, Necrosis, Apoptosis).The cytokinetic model of Figure 1, originally introduced in (Dionysiou et al. 2005), is used. Proliferating tumor cells pass through the phases G1 (gap 1), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (gap 2), and M(mitosis). After mitosis, each one of the daughter cells re-enters G1 if the oxygen
21、 and nutrient supply in its position is adequate. Otherwise, it enters the resting G0 phase, where it can stay for a limited time, TG0; it then enters the necrotic phase leading to cell lysis, unless in the meantime the local environment has become favorable. In the latter case, the cell re-enters G
22、1. Two basic mechanisms of radiation-induced cell death are being treated: apoptotic and necrotic cell death. Apoptotic cell death is subdivided into radiation-induced inter-phase death (RI-ID) (direct death through apoptosis) and radiation-induced mitotic apoptotic death (RI-MAD) (Dewey 1995, Steel
23、 2001). In most solid tumors the majority of lethally damaged cells dies through a radiation-induced mitotic necrotic mechanism (RI-MND) and is considered to undergo a few mitotic divisions prior to death and disappearance from the tumor. In the present model these cells are assumed to complete two
24、mitotic divisions before dying. The assumption of two mitotic divisions as a typical division number before the death of lethally injured irradiated cells is based on relevant data derived from the literature (Denekamp 1986, Perez and Brady, 1998, p.87), which states that cells irradiated with low r
25、adiation doses (e.g. 110 Gy) may successfully complete one or two divisions before death, whereas after high doses they die at the first attempted division. The fraction dose of 1.5 Gy used in HART and CHART radiotherapy schedules is at the lower limit of the above-mentioned low-dose interval (110 G
26、y), so the assumption of two mitotic divisions instead of one seems more biologically relevant.Figure 1.Cytokinetic model of a tumour cell. G1: G1 (gap1) phase, S: DNA synthesis phase, G2: G2 (gap 2) phase, M (mitosis), G0: resting phase, N: necrosis, SA: spontaneous apoptosis, RI-ID: radiation-indu
27、ced interphase death, RI-MAD: radiation-induced mitotic (more .)Cell loss from the tumor due to apoptosis and necrosis is estimated based on the the cell loss factor due to necrosis (CLFN) and apoptosis (CLFA) according to Steel 2002, p. 13. Specifically, the probability of cell loss per hour due to
28、 necrosis/apoptosis represents the cell loss rate due to necrosis/apoptosis and is the product of the cell loss factor due to necrosis/apoptosis and the cell birth rate. The cell birth rate (CBR) can be considered as the ratio of the growth fraction (GF) to the cell cycle duration (TC), i.e.: CLF =
29、CLR/CBR, CBR = GF/TC.The distribution of the initial NBC cells of a GC in each phase class is estimated according to the position of the corresponding GC, namely based on the estimated local metabolic activity (e.g. through PET or SPECT or indirectly through the use of contrast enhanced T1 weighted
30、MRI). Furthermore, the initial distribution of the proliferating cells within each one of the proliferating phases (G1, S, G2, M) is estimated using the mean duration of each cell cycle phase for the specific tumor.Cell killing by irradiation is described by the Linear Quadratic or LQ Model (Steel 2
31、002): (1)where S(D) is the surviving fraction after a (uniform) dose D (Gy) of radiation to a population of cells. The parameters (Gy-1) and (Gy-2) are called the radiosensitivity parameters of the LQ model. Cell radiosensitivity varies considerably throughout the cell cycle. The S phase is regarded
32、 as the most resistant. Cells in any proliferating phase are more radiosensitive than hypoxic cells residing in G0 (Steel 2002). Based on these observations we have used different values for the radiosensitivity parameters of the LQ model for the S phase (S, S), the proliferating phases G1, G2, M (P
33、, P), and the G0 phase (G0, G0). Specifically, the values of S, S and G0, G0 have been derived as perturbations of the (P , P) values.The basis of the tumor expansion-shrinkage algorithms is described below: In case that the actual number of alive and dead tumor cells contained within a given GC is
34、reduced to less than NBC/10, then a procedure which attempts to “unload” the remaining biological cells in the neighboring GCs takes place. The basic criterion of the unloading procedure is the available free space within the neighboring GCs, so that the biological cell density is approximately unif
35、orm throughout the geometrical mesh. Therefore, cells are preferentially placed within the neighboring GCs with the maximum available free space. In case that at the end of the unloading procedure the given GC becomes empty, it is assumed to disappear from the tumor. An appropriate shift of a chain
36、of GCs, intended to fill the “vacuum”, leads to tumor shrinkage. This can happen after the killing of a number of cells by irradiation.On the other hand, if the number of alive and dead cells within a given GC exceeds NBC + NBC/10, then a similar procedure attempting to unload the excess cells in th
37、e surrounding GCs takes place. In case that the unloading procedure fails to reduce the number of cells to less than NBC + NBC/10, then a new GC emerges. Its position relative to the “mother” GC is determined using a random number generator. An appropriate shifting of a chain of adjacent GCs leads t
38、o a differential expansion of the tumor. The “newborn” GC initially contains the excess number of biological cells, which are distributed in the various phase classes proportionally to the distribution in the “mother” GC. The procedure for choosing the appropriate shifting direction and the reason f
39、or choosing the cutoff values NBC/10 and NBC + NBC/10 are analytically presented in (Dionysiou et al. 2005).SIMULATION EXECUTIONSp53 gene status and radiosensitivityThe role of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes in modulating GB radiosensitivity constitutes the subject of intense research efforts.
40、 Perhaps the best-studied tumor-suppressor gene in the case of GB is p53. The roles of wild-type (wt) p53 in modulating DNA repair, apoptosis, and the G1 cell cycle arrest have each been implicated in the regulation of cellular response to ionizing radiation. An abnormal p53 has been related to a wi
41、de variety of tumors throughout the body. p53 mutations in human malignancies are frequently being associated with poor prognosis, poor response to therapy and advanced stage of disease (DAvenia et al. 2006).The parameters and of the LQ Model constitute one possible way to incorporate the influence
42、of genetic determinants, such as the p53 gene status, into the simulation model. As we have already described (Dionysiou et al. 2004, Dionysiou et al. 2005), a remarkable number of studies associate p53 mutations with increased radioresistance and poor clinical outcome for patients with GB. (Haas-Ko
43、gan et al. 1996) observed an increased radioresistance in irradiated GB G1 cells lacking functional wild type (wt) p53, manifested by a relatively lower a and /. More precisely this observation refers only to two isogenic glioblastoma cell lines (U87-LUX.8 demonstrating wt p53 function and U87-175.4
44、 lacking wt p53 function henceforth denoted by “mt p53”) differing only in p53 status. The following analysis refers to those two genetic profiles. Furthermore, in (Haas-Kogan et al. 1999) they studied the influence of p53 function on the effect of fractionated radiotherapy of GB tumors and conclude
45、d that fractionated radiotherapy provides a selective advantage to GB cells expressing mutant p53 (mt p53).Based on these studies, we considered two hypothetical GB tumors with different p53 status, in order to do a comparative study of the effect of weekend treatment gaps in their response to radio
46、therapy: a GB tumor with wild type p53 (Haas-Kogan et al. 1996 and perturbations):p = 0.61Gy1, S = 0.4472Gy1, G0 = 0.203Gy1p = 0.02Gy2, S = 0.0128Gy2, G0 = 0.002Gy2a GB tumor with mutant p53 (Haas-Kogan et al. 1996 and perturbations):p = 0.17Gy1, S = 0.1248Gy1, G0 = 0.057Gy1p = 0.022Gy2, S = 0.0128G
47、y2, G0 = 0.002Gy2where: p, p: the LQ Model parameters for G1,G2, M phases, S, S: the LQ Model parameters for S phase, G0, G0: the LQ Model parameters for G0 phase.In consistence with experimental biology, we assumed G0 = p/OER and G0 = p/OER2, where OER: the Oxygen Enhancement Ratio, taken equal to
48、3 (Perez and Brandy 1998; Kocher et al. 2000; Steel 2002), and S = 0.6p+ 0.4G0, S = 0.6 p + 0.4 G0.Other model parametersA 3D mesh quantizing the anatomical region of interest has been considered. The dimensions of each GC are 1mm 1mm 1mm. Such a volume contains roughly 106 biological cells (NBC = 1
49、06) (Steel 2002). Since GB is generally considered a poorly differentiated tumor (Curran R.C. and Crocker J. 2000), as a first approximation all non-clonogenic cells are considered to be necrotic (sterile cells are not taken into account). A typical clonogenic cell density is 104 cells/mm3 (Jones and Dale 1999). Since GB tumors are highly aggressive and rapidly growing, we assume a clonogenic cell density of 2 105 cells/mm3 in the proliferating cell region (a 6 mm thick layer from the outer boundary of the tumor towards
