1、建立一个信息管理系统在行政管理机构信息是个重要资源。及时有效的重要信息对于高效管理职能的表现是至关重要的，例如准备，组织，领导，控制。在一个管理机构中，信息系统就像是人体中的神经系统，它把组织的所有元件连接在一起而且还在竞争的环境中提供更好的操作和生存机会。信息系统经常提及一个以计算机为基础的，被设计成支持组织的操作、经营和决策功能的系统。在组织中信息系统为决策者提供信息支持。信息系统包含交易处理系统、管理信息系统、决策支持系统和战略的信息系统。信息由经过处理的而且是对用户是有用的数据组成。一个系统是为了达成一个共同的目的共同操作的一组元件。因此一个管理信息系统收集，传送，处理，储存，而且在组
2、织资源、程序表和成就上储存数据。系统进入经营信息之内为这些数据做合理的变换为决策者在组织里面的使用。因此，一个管理信息系统提供支持组织管理职能的信息。第一章 基本的概念1.1 数据和信息的比较数据提供未加工的、不被评估的事实数据、符号、物件、事件等等。数据可能是一个在于储存事实的集合物件，像一个电话目录或者实施统计调查记录。信息是那些已经进入一个有意义的，有用的背景而且传达到一个使用它做出决断的接受人的数据。信息涉及智慧或知识的交流和接受。它评价而且通知，吃惊而且刺激，减少不确定，现实另外可供选择的方案或者帮助去除无关的或者没用的信息，还影响人们并且鼓励他们做出行动。数据的元素在一个特殊的背景
3、下可能构成一条信息；例如，当你想联系你的朋友的时候，他或者她的电话号码就是一条信息；除此之外，它在电话号码薄里仅仅是一个数据的元素。1.2 信息的特性好信息的特性是中肯的、时间性、准确性、成本效益、可靠性、可用性、无遗漏和凝聚层次。如果它引导改良的决策，信息是有关的。如果它重新确定之前的决定它也是有关的。如果它对你的问题没有任何帮助那它就是无关的。例如，如果你在一月考虑去巴黎，那有关巴黎一月的天气情况的信息对你来说就是有关的。否则，这信息就是无关的。时间性涉及到信息的流通呈现给使用者。数据或信息的流通性是事件发生到它呈现给用户（决策者）之间的时间缺口。如果这个合计时间很短，我们说这个信息系统是
4、一个即时系统。准确性是通过对数据和实际事件的比较而被测量的。准确无误的数据的重要性随着需要做出决断的型态而改变的。工资总支出信息必须是精确地。简单的近似值是不能满足需要的。不过对于全体员工的时间有多少是专注于特定的活动需要一个大致的估算，这是不可或缺的。1.3 信息的价值在决策的制定上信息有着重要的作用，因此它的价值紧紧系在使用它所做出的决断上。信息没有一个绝对的万用价值。它的价值关系到使用它的人们，当它被用，和在什么情况下被用。在这个意义上，信息跟其它的商品有相似之处。例如，对于一个在撒哈拉沙漠的人来说一杯水的价值就超过了一个在北极冰川迷路的人。经济学家从招致生产或者获得商品的一个商品的成本
5、或者价格来辨别价值。很显然，产品的价值肯定比它的成本或者价格高让它变得有成本效益。信息的标准价值的概念已经被经济学家和统计家发展而且它起源于决断理论。这个理论的基本前提是我们总是有一些与我们的决断相关的发生的事件的初步了解。额外的信息可能修改我们对事情发生或然率的观点，因此改变我们的决定并且期望决定取得成功。因此，额外的信息的价值是通过减少将来的事件的不确定性而获得预期结果的差额。信息支持决定，决定触发动作，而动作影响组织的成就或绩效。如果我们可以测量出绩效中的差额，我们就可以追踪信息的影响力，进而可以假设测量小心地被执行，在变数之中的关系定义得好，而且不相关因素的可能结果被孤立。由于信息的因
6、素，绩效标准的差额叫做信息的现实价值或者显示价值。对于大部分的信息系统来说，特别是那些支持中层和最高管理部门的人们，产生的决断时常与不严格被定义而且包括不能够被定量的或然率的事件有关。决策程序时常是模糊的，而且结果因多重的、无比的大小而依比例决定的。在一些情况下，我们可能尝试执行一个多属性分析或者得到一个大体上主观的价值。主观的价值反映了人们对于信息的综合印象和他们愿意为特定信息支付的价值（Ahituv, Neumann, Lucas, 1990; McLeod, 1995). Basic conceptsData versus Information Data refers to raw,
7、unevaluated facts, figures, symbols, objects, events, etc. Data may be a collection of facts lying in storage, like a telephone directory or census records. Information is data that have been put into a meaningful and useful context and communicated to a recipient who uses it to make decisions. Info
8、rmation involves the communication and reception of intelligence or knowledge. It appraises and notifies, surprises and stimulates, reduces uncertainty, reveals additional alternatives or helps eliminate irrelevant or poor ones, and influences individuals and stimulates them to action. An element of
9、 data may constitute information in a specific context; for example, when you want to contact your friend, his or her telephone number is a piece of information; otherwise, it is just one element of data in the telephone directory. Characteristics of Information The characteristics of good informati
10、on are relevance, timeliness, accuracy, cost-effectiveness, reliability, usability, exhaustiveness, and aggregation level. Information is relevant if it leads to improved decision making. It might also be relevant if it reaffirms a previous decision. If it does not have anything to do with your prob
11、lem, it is irrelevant. For example, information about the weather conditions in Paris in January is relevant if you are considering a visit to Paris in January. Otherwise, the information is not relevant. Timeliness refers to the currency of the information presented to the users. Currency of data o
12、r information is the time gap between the occurrence of an event in the field until its presentation to the user (decision maker). When this amount of time is very short, we describe the information system as a real-time system. Accuracy is measured by comparing the data to actual events. The import
13、ance of accurate data varies with the type of decisions that need to be made. Payroll information must be exact. Approximations simply will not suffice. However, a general estimate of how much staff time was devoted to a particular activity may be all that is needed. Value of Information Information
14、 has a great impact on decision making, and hence its value is closely tied to the decisions that result from its use. Information does not have an absolute universal value. Its value is related to those who use it, when it is used, and in what situation it is used. In this sense, information is sim
15、ilar to other commodities. For example, the value of a glass of water is different for someone who has lost his way in Arctic glaciers than it is to a wanderer in the Sahara Desert. Economists distinguish value from cost or price of a commodity incurred to produce or procure the commodity. Obviously
16、, the value of a product must be higher than its cost or price for it to be cost-effective. The concept of normative value of information has been developed by economists and statisticians and is derived from decision theory. The basic premise of the theory is that we always have some preliminary kn
17、owledge about the occurrence of events that are relevant to our decisions. Additional information might modify our view of the occurrence probabilities and consequently change our decision and the expected payoff from the decision. The value of additional information is, hence, the difference in exp
18、ected payoff obtained by reduced uncertainty about the future event. Information supports decisions, decisions trigger actions, and actions affect the achievements or performance of the organization. If we can measure the differences in performance, we can trace the impact of information, provided t
19、hat the measurements are carefully performed, the relationships among variables are well defined, and possible effects of irrelevant factors are isolated. The measured difference in performance due to informational factors is called the realistic value or revealed value of information. For most info
20、rmation systems, particularly those supporting middle and top management, the resulting decisions often relate to events that are not strictly defined and involve probabilities that cannot be quantified. The decision-making process often is obscure and the outcomes are scaled by multiple and incompa
21、rable dimensions. In such cases, we may either attempt to perform a multiattribute analysis or derive an overall subjective value. The subjective value reflects peoples comprehensive impression of information and the amount they are willing to pay for specific information (Ahituv, Neumann, hence we
22、distinguish between the database (a set of data) and the applications (a set of programmers). In a decision support system (DSS), this set of programmers is the model base (Keen & Morton, 1978). The term database may refer to any collection of data that might serve an organizational unit. A database
23、 on a given subject is a collection of data on that subject that observes three criteria: comprehensiveness (completeness), nonredundancy, and appropriate structure. Comprehensiveness means that all the data about the subject are actually present in the database. Nonredundancy means that each indivi
24、dual piece of data exists only once in the database. Appropriate structure means that the data are stored in such a way as to minimize the cost of expected processing and storage (Awad & Gotterer, 1992). The idea of a large corporate database that can be flexibly shared by several applications or mo
25、del bases has been realized by means of software packages specially devised to perform such tasks. These packages, called database management systems (DBMSs), are available in the market under different trade names such as ORACLE, SYBASE, INGRES, FOXBASE, and dBASE. Illustrative computer-based MISA
26、national agricultural extension system is a nationwide system managed by the national government. In India, agriculture is a state subject under the division of powers between the national and the state levels. Nevertheless, the national government supplements the financial resources of the states a
27、nd provides coordination at the national level. The states administrative machinery is divided into districts, districts into subdivisions, subdivisions into blocks. A block is a group of villages and the basic unit for the administration of an agricultural extension programmer. Data collected at th
28、e block level need to be integrated at higher administrative levels to provide an integrated view at the district and state levels to support planning, monitoring, and decision making. However, the actual design may vary with the size of the state and other considerations. An integrated database for
29、 the entire state may be supported by a mainframe/minicomputer at the state headquarters. Suitable programmes for the analysis of data may be designed to provide an interactive decision support system at the state level. Each district and subdivision may be provided with a mini/micro computer, depen
30、ding on the volume of data to be handled. The computers in the districts and subdivisions may be networked with the state computer. The local data may be stored and processed in the district/subdivision, and the shared data with appropriate level of aggregation may be transmitted to the state headqu
31、arters to update the integrated database. The districts and subdivisions would have direct access to the integrated database with proper authorizations assigned to them through their passwords. The blocks may have only the input-output terminals connected to the subdivision computer to feed data to
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