语言学笔记(上课的笔记).doc

1、CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION (高叔叔说这章要考 50 分，所以东西有点多)1.Linguistics 1.1Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Three key words: Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular language but language in general. Study: investigate examine research Sci

2、entific: observation generalizationhypotheses formationdata collectionhypotheses testing theory formulation How to make a study “scientific“?1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsrelevant to ones investigation and give theman adequate explanation. 2) Consistency: make no contradiction between p

3、arts of the total statement3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice to influence ones generalization.1.2 the scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of l

4、anguage as a whole. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas. General linguistics can be further divided into theoretical linguistics (mic

5、ro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics).1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:1)Phnetics :the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. 2) Phonology : studies how sounds ar

6、e put together and used to convey meanings in communication.3)Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words. 4) Syntaxsintks: studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences 5)Semantics simntiks: the study of m

7、eaning in isolation, statically out of context.1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8 了解即可)1) Pragmatics: the dynamic study of meaning in context.2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to any language connected areas (broad sense), to lan

8、guage teaching esp to the teaching of foreign or second language (narrow sense) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation. 3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of language such as education background, economic status, sex and its relation with society. It i

9、ncludes language norm, language change and language policy. 4) Psycolinguistics: studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to underlie that behavior. it aims to answer three questions:1) how human work when we use language; 2)how we acquire our

10、 mother tongue ; 3)how we percept and internalize the information we receive in communication.5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man. 6) Neurolinguistics : s

11、tudies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings. 7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of language by employing models and concepts of mathematics.8) Computational linguistics; approaches in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied

12、 with the aid of computer machine. Translation or automatic translation; project which teaches machine how to recognize speech sounds and therefore words (speech synthesis) 1.3 important distinctions in linguistics ( 重点 )1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive Descriptive objective Prescriptivesubjective

13、 If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use , it is descriptive(描写性） If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive（规定性) . Traditional grammar is Prescriptive, w

14、hile modern linguistics is descriptive. 1.3.2 Synchronic (共时) vs diachronic (历时) The description of language at some point in time is a Synchronic study. (Periodical study) The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (Hisistorical study)1.3.3 Speech and Writing Two

15、major media of communication,speech is primary to writing.1.3.4 Langue (语言) and Parole (言语) Ferdinand de Saussure (18571913), pioneer of semiotics (符号学) ,he is the father of modern linguistics. Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. Saussures work marked the beginning of modern linguistics

16、. Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is abstract, not the language people actually use. Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use . It is co

17、ncrete, naturally occurring language event.1.3.5 competence（语言能力）and performance (语言运用) It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950s. Competence refers to the ideal language users knowledge of the rules of his language and, Performance refers to the actual realization of this

18、 knowledge in linguistic communication, what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why?1) Competence is comparatively stable 2) Performance is haphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment, or mistakes such as slips of the tongues and

19、 unnecessary pauses, despite a perfect knowledge. It is a distinction between what one “knows” and what one “does”.2.Language 2.1 Definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2.2 Design features of language (重点)Design features refers to the defi

20、ning properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. Arbitrariness（任意性）It means there is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Productivity (创造性/多产性) Di

21、fferent sounds can be grouped to form words ,and different words can be arranged to form different sentences. Productivity is unique to human language. Duality (二元性)*Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower (sounds) and Higher (meaning) At the lower level is a structure of sounds which a

22、re meaningless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phonememorphemewordphraseclausesentence Displacement (移位性) 2 dimensions: Temporal 时间的 (ii) Do not say

23、that for which you lack adequate evidence. Maxim of Quantity（数量原则）： (i) Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purposes of the exchange) .(ii) Do not make your contribution more informative than required. Maxim of Relation（相关原则）: Be relative. Maxim of Manner（礼貌原则） : Be pe

24、rspicuous.(i) Avoid obscurity of expression.(ii) Avoid ambiguity.(iii) Be brief.(iv) Be orderly.6.3.4.2 Conversational implicature（话语暗示） Conversational implicature is a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance.According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either

25、strictly and directly observing or deliberately and ostentatiously flouting the maxims.6.3.5 The politeness principle（礼貌原则） （呜呜我也不晓得这个重要不，还是了解一下嘛 ） Tact Maxim （得体原则）a) Minimize cost to other b) Maximize benefit to other Generosity Maxim（慷慨原则）a) Minimize benefit to self b) Maximize cost to self Appro

26、bation Maxim（赞扬原则）a) Minimize dispraise of otherb) Maximize praise of other Modesty Maxim（谦虚原则）a) Minimize praise of selfb) Maximize dispraise of self Agreement Maxim（赞同原则）a) Minimize disagreement between self and other b) Maximize agreement between self and other Sympathy Maxim （同情原则）a) Minimize an

27、tipathy between self and otherb) Maximize sympathy between self and other CHAPTER 11 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION(二语习得)（还木有上完哈，我不晓得那些是重点，上完了补给你们哈） Second Language Acquisition (SLA): refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. Target language (TL)(目的语): the language which a person is learning, in contrast to a first language or mother tongue.