1、,5 FIRM BEHAVIOR AND THE ORGANIZATION OF INDUSTRY 企业行为与产业组织,The Costs of roduction 生产成本,Chapter 13,The Market Forces of Supply and Demand,Supply and demand are the two words that economists use most often. Supply and demand are the forces that make market economies work. Modern microeconomics is abo
2、ut supply, demand, and market equilibrium.,供给与需求的市场力量,供给与需求是经济学家最常用的两个词。 供给与需求是使市场经济运行的力量。 现代微观经济学就是研究供给、需求与市场均衡的学科。,WHAT ARE COSTS?,According to the Law of Supply: Firms are willing to produce and sell a greater quantity of a good when the price of the good is high. This results in a supply curve t
3、hat slopes upward.,什么是成本?,根据供给规律: 当一种物品价格高时，厂商愿意生产和销售的更多。 这导致供给曲线向上倾斜。,WHAT ARE COSTS?,The Firms Objective The economic goal of the firm is to maximize profits.,Maximum Profits,什么是成本?,企业的目标 企业的经济目标是利润最大化,Maximum Profits,Total Revenue,Total Cost,and profit 总收入、总成本与利润,Total Revenue 总收入 The amount that
4、 the firm receives for the sale of its output.企业销售产品所得 Total Cost 总成本 The market value of the inputs a firm uses in production.企业用于生产的投入要素的市场价值。,A Firms Profit 公司利润,Profit is the firms total revenue minus its total cost.Profit = Total revenue - Total cost利润总收入总成本,Costs as Opportunity Costs,A firms c
5、ost of production includes all the opportunity costs of making its output of goods and services. Explicit and Implicit Costs A firms cost of production include explicit costs and implicit costs. Explicit costs are input costs that require a direct outlay of money by the firm. Implicit costs are inpu
6、t costs that do not require an outlay of money by the firm.,成本是机会成本,一个企业的生产成本包括生产物品与劳务量的所有机会成本。 显性成本和隐性成本 一个企业的生产成本包括显性成本与隐性成本。 显性成本 要求企业直接支付货币的投入要素成本。 隐性成本不要求企业支付货币的投入要素成本。,Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit,Economists measure a firms economic profit as total revenue minus all the opportunity
7、 costs (explicit and implicit). Accountants measure the accounting profit as the firms total revenue minus only the firms explicit costs. In other words, they ignore the implicit costs.,经济利润与会计利润,经济学家计量企业的经济利润，即企业的总收益减去生产所销售物品和劳务的所有机会成本（显性的和隐性的）。 会计师计量企业的会计利润，即企业的总收益减去企业的显性成本。,Economic Profit versus
8、 Accounting Profit 经济利润与会计利润,When total revenue exceeds both explicit and implicit costs, the firm earns economic profit.当总收益大于显性成本和隐性成本时，企业赚取经济利润。 Economic profit is smaller than accounting profit.经济利润小于会计利润。,Economic Profit versus Accounting Profit,经济利润与会计利润,Table 1 A Production Function and Total
9、 Cost: Hungry Helens Cookie Factory,Copyright2004 South-Western,表1. 生产函数和总成本：亨格瑞.海伦的糕点厂,The Production Function 生产函数,The production function shows the relationship between quantity of inputs used to make a good and the quantity of output of that good. 生产函数用于生产一种物品的投入量与该物品产量之间的关系。,Marginal Product 边际
10、产量,The marginal product of any input in the production process is the increase in the quantity of output obtained from an additional unit of that input. 任何一种生产过程中的投入要素的边际产量是指增加一个单位的该要素投入所引起的产量增加。,Marginal Product 边际产量,边际产量,产出增加量,Diminishing Marginal Product,Diminishing marginal product is the proper
11、ty whereby the marginal product of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases. Example: As more and more workers are hired at a firm, each additional worker contributes less and less to production because the firm has a limited amount of equipment.,边际产量递减,边际产量递减 是指一种投入要素的边际产量随着该要素投入量的增
12、加而减少的特征。 例子: 由于雇佣的工人越来越多，每个新雇佣的工人对产量的贡献越来越小，这是因为有限的设备数量不能将他的潜能发挥出来。,Figure 2 Hungry Helens Production Function,Quantity of,Output,(cookies per hour),150,140,130,120,110,100,90,80,70,60,50,40,30,20,10,Number of Workers Hired,0,1,2,3,4,5,Production function,图2.亨格瑞.海伦的生产函数,产量,(cookies per hour),150,140
13、,130,120,110,100,90,80,70,60,50,40,30,20,10,雇佣工人数量,0,1,2,3,4,5,生产函数,Diminishing Marginal Product,The slope of the production function measures the marginal product of an input, such as a worker. When the marginal product declines, the production function becomes flatter.,边际产量递减,生产函数的斜率衡量了一种投入要素（比如一个
14、工人）的边际产量。 随着工人数量增加，边际产量减少，生产函数越来越平坦。,From the Production Function to the Total-Cost Curve,The relationship between the quantity a firm can produce and its costs determines pricing decisions. The total-cost curve shows this relationship graphically.,从生产函数到总成本曲线,一个企业可能的生产量和它的成本之间的关系决定了它的产品定价。 用来说明生产产量
15、和生产总成本之间关系的图被称为总成本曲线。,Table 1 A Production Function and Total Cost: Hungry Helens Cookie Factory,Copyright2004 South-Western,表1.生产函数和总成本亨格瑞.海伦的糕点厂,Figure 3 Hungry Helens Total-Cost Curve 图3. 亨格瑞.海伦的总成本曲线,Total cost,总成本,$80,70,60,50,40,30,20,10,Quantity of Output 产量,(cookies per hour),0,20,40,140,120
16、,100,80,60,Total-cost,Curve 总成本曲线,The Various Measures of Cost 成本的各种衡量,Costs of production may be divided into fixed costs and variable costs. 生产成本可以分为固定成本 和可变成本。,Fixed and Variable Costs,Fixed costs are those costs that do not vary with the quantity of output produced. Variable costs are those cost
17、s that do change as the firm alters the quantity of output produced.,固定成本和变动成本,固定成本 不随着产量变动而变动的成本。 可变成本 随着产量变动而变动的成本。,Total Costs 总成本,Total Fixed Costs (TFC) 总固定成本 （ TFC ） Total Variable Costs (TVC)总可变成本（TVC） Total Costs (TC) 总成本 (TC) TC = TFC + TVC,Table 2 The Various Measures of Cost: Thirsty Thel
18、mas Lemonade Stand,Copyright2004 South-Western,Table 2 The Various Measures of Cost: Thirsty Thelmas Lemonade Stand,Quantity,Total Cost,Fixed Cost,Variable Cost,0,$ 3.00,$3.00,$ 0.00,1,3.30,3.00,0.30,2,3.80,3.00,0.80,3,4.50,3.00,1.50,4,5.40,3.00,2.40,5,6.50,3.00,3.50,6,7.80,3.00,4.80,7,9.30,3.00,6.3
19、0,8,11.00,3.00,8.00,9,12.90,3.00,9.90,10,15.00,3.00,12.00,表2. 成本的各种衡量：索斯蒂.特尔玛的柠檬水店,数量,总成本,固定成本,可变成本,0,$ 3.00,$3.00,$ 0.00,1,3.30,3.00,0.30,2,3.80,3.00,0.80,3,4.50,3.00,1.50,4,5.40,3.00,2.40,5,6.50,3.00,3.50,6,7.80,3.00,4.80,7,9.30,3.00,6.30,8,11.00,3.00,8.00,9,12.90,3.00,9.90,10,15.00,3.00,12.00,Ave
20、rage Costs 平均成本,Average costs can be determined by dividing the firms costs by the quantity of output produced. 平均成本：总成本除以产量。 The average cost is the cost of each typical unit of product. 平均成本是生产一个普通单位的成本。,Family of Average Costs 平均成本,Average Fixed Costs (AFC)平均固定成本 (AFC) Average Variable Costs (AVC
21、)平均可变成本 (AVC) Average Total Costs (ATC)平均总成本 (ATC)ATC = AFC + AVC,Family of Average Costs,平均成本,$3.00,Table 2 The Various Measures of Cost: Thirsty Thelmas Lemonade Stand,Quantity,AFC,AVC,ATC,0,1,$0.30,$3.30,2,1.50,0.40,1.90,3,1.00,0.50,1.50,4,0.75,0.60,1.35,5,0.60,0.70,1.30,6,0.50,0.80,1.30,7,0.43,0
22、.90,1.33,8,0.38,1.00,1.38,9,0.33,1.10,1.43,10,0.30,1.20,1.50,$3.00,表2. 成本的各种衡量：索斯蒂.特尔玛的柠檬水店,产量,AFC,AVC,ATC,0,1,$0.30,$3.30,2,1.50,0.40,1.90,3,1.00,0.50,1.50,4,0.75,0.60,1.35,5,0.60,0.70,1.30,6,0.50,0.80,1.30,7,0.43,0.90,1.33,8,0.38,1.00,1.38,9,0.33,1.10,1.43,10,0.30,1.20,1.50,Marginal Cost,Marginal
23、cost (MC) measures the amount total cost rises when the firm increases production by one unit. Marginal cost helps answer the following question: How much does it cost to produce an additional unit of output?,边际成本,边际成本 (MC) 衡量额外一个单位产量所引起的总成本的增加。边际成本帮助回答以下问题： 生产额外一个单位产量的成本是多少？,Marginal Cost,边际成本,Marg
24、inal Cost：Thirsty Thelmas Lemonade Stand,边际成本：索斯蒂.特尔玛的柠檬水店,Figure 4 Thirsty Thelmas Total-Cost Curves,Total Cost,$15.00,14.00,13.00,12.00,11.00,10.00,9.00,8.00,7.00,6.00,5.00,4.00,3.00,2.00,1.00,Quantity,of Output,(glasses of lemonade per hour),0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,Total-cost curve,图4. 索斯蒂.特尔玛的总成本
25、曲线,总成本,$15.00,14.00,13.00,12.00,11.00,10.00,9.00,8.00,7.00,6.00,5.00,4.00,3.00,2.00,1.00,产量,(每小时柠檬水杯数),0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,总成本曲线,Figure 5 Thirsty Thelmas Average-Cost and Marginal-Cost Curves,Costs,$3.50,3.25,3.00,2.75,2.50,2.25,2.00,1.75,1.50,1.25,1.00,0.75,0.50,0.25,Quantity,of Output,(glasses
26、of lemonade per hour),0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,MC,ATC,AVC,AFC,图5. 索斯蒂.特尔玛的平均成本和边际成本曲线,成本,$3.50,3.25,3.00,2.75,2.50,2.25,2.00,1.75,1.50,1.25,1.00,0.75,0.50,0.25,产量,(每小时柠檬水杯数),0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,MC,ATC,AVC,AFC,Cost Curves and Their Shapes 成本曲线及其形状,Marginal cost rises with the amount of output produc
27、ed. 边际成本随着产量增加而上升。 Marginal cost 边际成本 This reflects the property of diminishing marginal product. 边际成本递增反映了边际产量递减的性质,Figure 5 Thirsty Thelmas Average-Cost and Marginal-Cost Curves,Costs,$3.50,3.25,3.00,2.75,2.50,2.25,2.00,1.75,1.50,1.25,1.00,0.75,0.50,0.25,Quantity,of Output,(glasses of lemonade per
28、 hour),0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,MC,图5. 索斯蒂.特尔玛的平均成本和边际成本曲线,成本,$3.50,3.25,3.00,2.75,2.50,2.25,2.00,1.75,1.50,1.25,1.00,0.75,0.50,0.25,产量,(每小时柠檬水杯数）,0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,MC,Cost Curves and Their Shapes,The average total-cost curve is U-shaped. At very low levels of output average total cost is high be
29、cause fixed cost is spread over only a few units. Average total cost declines as output increases. Average total cost starts rising because average variable cost rises substantially.,成本曲线及其形状,平均总成本曲线 是 U型的。 在产量水平极低时，平均总成本高，这是因为固定成本只分摊在少数几个单位产品上。 平均总成本随着产量增加而降低。 当平均可变成本大幅度上升时，平均总成本开始增加。,Cost Curves a
30、nd Their Shapes 成本曲线及其形状,The bottom of the U-shape occurs at the quantity that minimizes average total cost. This quantity is sometimes called the efficient scale of the firm. 在使平均总成本最小的产量时，U型曲线的底部就出现了。这种产量有时被称为企业的有效规模。,Figure 5 Thirsty Thelmas Average-Cost and Marginal-Cost Curves,Costs,$3.50,3.25,
31、3.00,2.75,2.50,2.25,2.00,1.75,1.50,1.25,1.00,0.75,0.50,0.25,Quantity,of Output,(glasses of lemonade per hour),0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,ATC,图5. 索斯蒂.特尔玛的平均成本和边际成本曲线,成本,$3.50,3.25,3.00,2.75,2.50,2.25,2.00,1.75,1.50,1.25,1.00,0.75,0.50,0.25,产量,(每小时柠檬水杯数),0,1,4,3,2,7,6,5,9,8,10,ATC,Relationship Between Mar
32、ginal Cost and Average Total Cost,Whenever marginal cost is less than average total cost, average total cost is falling. Whenever marginal cost is greater than average total cost, average total cost is rising.,边际成本和平均总成本之间的关系,只要边际成本小于平均总成本，平均总成本就下降。 只要边际成本大于平均总成本，平均总成本就上升。,Relationship Between Margi
33、nal Cost and Average Total Cost,The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at the efficient scale. Efficient scale is the quantity that minimizes average total cost.,边际成本和平均总成本之间的关系,边际成本曲线与平均总成本曲线相交于有效规模时。有效规模使平均总成本最小的产量。,Relationship Between Marginal Cost and Average Total Cost,$0
34、.00,$0.50,$1.00,$1.50,$2.00,$2.50,$3.00,$3.50,0,2,4,6,8,10,12,Quantity of Output,(glasses of lemonade per hour),Costs,边际成本和平均总成本之间的关系,$0.00,$0.50,$1.00,$1.50,$2.00,$2.50,$3.00,$3.50,0,2,4,6,8,10,12,产量,(每小时柠檬水杯数),成本,边际成本,平均总成本,Typical Cost Curves 典型的成本曲线,It is now time to examine the relationships th
35、at exist between the different measures of cost. 现在讨论一下不同衡量方式的成本 之间的关系。,Big Bobs Cost Curves,大鲍伯的成本曲线,Figure 6 Big Bobs Cost Curves,(a) Total-Cost Curve,$18.00,16.00,14.00,12.00,10.00,8.00,6.00,4.00,Quantity of Output (bagels per hour),TC,4,2,6,8,14,12,10,2.00,Total,Cost,0,图6.大鲍伯的成本曲线,(a) 总成本曲线,$18.
36、00,16.00,14.00,12.00,10.00,8.00,6.00,4.00,产量 (每小时百吉圈),TC,4,2,6,8,14,12,10,2.00,总成本,0,Figure 6 Big Bobs Cost Curves,(b) Marginal- and Average-Cost Curves,Quantity of Output (bagels per hour),Costs,$3.00,2.50,2.00,1.50,1.00,0.50,0,4,2,6,8,14,12,10,MC,ATC,AVC,AFC,图6.大鲍伯的成本曲线,(b) 边际和平均成本曲线,成本,$3.00,2.50
37、,2.00,1.50,1.00,0.50,0,4,2,6,8,14,12,10,MC,ATC,AVC,AFC,产量 (每小时百吉圈),Typical Cost Curves,Three Important Properties of Cost Curves Marginal cost eventually rises with the quantity of output. The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped. The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at the m
38、inimum of average total cost.,典型的成本曲线,成本曲线的三个重要特征 随着产量增加，边际成本最终要上升。 平均总成本曲线是U型的。 边际成本曲线与平均总成本曲线在平均总成本最低点相交。,COSTS IN THE SHORT RUN AND IN THE LONG RUN,For many firms, the division of total costs between fixed and variable costs depends on the time horizon being considered. In the short run some cost
39、s are fixed. In the long run fixed costs become variable costs.,短期与长期成本,对许多企业来说，总成本分为固定和可变成本取决于所考察的时间长短。 在短期中一些成本是固定的。 在长期中成本都是可变的。,COSTS IN THE SHORT RUN AND IN THE LONG RUN 短期与长期成本,Because many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run, a firms long-run cost curves differ from
40、its short-run cost curves. 由于许多成本在短期中是固定的，但在长期中是可变的，所以企业的长期成本曲线不同于其短期成本曲线。,Figure 7 Average Total Cost in the Short and Long Run,Quantity of,Cars per Day,0,Average,Total,Cost,1,200,$12,000,图7. 短期与长期的平均成本,Copyright 2004 South-Western,每天汽车产量,0,1,200,$12,000,平均总 成本,Economies and Diseconomies of Scale,E
41、conomies of scale occur when long-run average total cost declines as output increases. Diseconomies of scale occur when long-run average total cost rises as output increases. Constant returns to scale occur when long-run average total cost does not vary as output increases.,规模经济与规模不经济,当长期平均总成本随着产量增加
42、而减少时，可以说存在规模经济。 当长期平均总成本随着产量增加而增加时，可以说存在规模不经济。 当长期平均总成本不随着产量变动而变动时，可以说存在规模收益不变。,Figure 7 Average Total Cost in the Short and Long Run,Quantity of,Cars per Day,0,Average,Total,Cost,图7. 短期与长期的平均总成本,每天汽车产量,0,平均总 成本,Summary,The goal of firms is to maximize profit, which equals total revenue minus total
43、cost. When analyzing a firms behavior, it is important to include all the opportunity costs of production. Some opportunity costs are explicit while other opportunity costs are implicit.,小结,企业的目标是利润最大化，利润等于总收益减去总成本。 分析企业的行为时，重要的是要考虑生产的所有机会成本。 一些机会成本是显性的，另一些机会成本则是隐性的。,Summary,A firms costs reflect it
44、s production process. A typical firms production function gets flatter as the quantity of input increases, displaying the property of diminishing marginal product. A firms total costs are divided between fixed and variable costs. Fixed costs dont vary with quantities produced; variable costs do.,小结,
45、企业的成本反映其生产过程。 随着投入量增加，典型企业的生产函数变得平坦，这表现了边际产量递减的性质。 企业总成本可以分为固定成本和可变成本。固定成本是在企业改变产量时不变的成本，可变成本是在企业改变产量时改变的成本。,Summary,Average total cost is total cost divided by the quantity of output. Marginal cost is the amount by which total cost would rise if output were increased by one unit. The marginal cost
46、always rises with the quantity of output. Average cost first falls as output increases and then rises.,小结,平均总成本是总成本除以产量。 边际成本是如果产量增加一个单位总成本应该增加的量。 对一个典型的企业来说，边际成本随着产量增加而增加。 随着产量增加，平均成本先是下降然后上升。,Summary,The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped. The marginal-cost curve always crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of ATC. A firms costs often depend on the time horizon being considered. In particular, many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run.,
