1、European Culture：An Introduction,Division FiveThe Seventeenth Century,General Introduction,1.Advance in science, in astronomy,physics and pure mathematics.,牛顿Newton,伽利略Galileo,开普勒Kepler,笛卡尔Descartes,2. The outlook of educated men was transformed.,There was a profound change in the conception of mens
2、 place in the universe. For one thing, the triumphs of science revived human pride. This new outlook shattered the deeply established Scholasticism and brought about modern philosophy, which was materialist（唯物主义者） in nature.,3. The newly emerged class, the bourgeoisie（中产阶级）.,Some revolutions1.英国资产阶级
3、革命16401689 2.英国内战 16421648年 3.克伦威尔统治时期 16491660年 4.斯图亚特王朝复辟 16601688年 5.光荣革命1688年,Bertrand Russell Said:,The modern world, so far as mental outlook is concerned, begins in the seventeenth century.,II. Science,a breakthrough in physics and mathematics in the 17th century Chemistry in 18th century Bio
4、logy in 19th century Psychology in 20th century Genetics in 21th century,1. From Copernicus to KeplerA. Nicolaus Copernicus 哥白尼 (1473-1543) 伟大的波兰天文学家 Polish astronomer推翻托勒密（Ptolemy)的 “地心说”(Geocentric Theory) 创立“日心说” (heliocentric theory) 近代天文学的奠基人The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs 天体运行论,Science,“地心
5、说” Geocentric Theory,“日心说” heliocentric theory,Nicolaus Copernicus哥白尼(1473-1543),哥白尼的学说不仅改变了那个时代人类对宇宙的认识，而且根本动摇了欧洲中世纪宗教神学的理论基础。,Nicolaus Copernicus哥白尼 (1473-1543),恩格斯的评价：“从此自然科学便开始从神学中解放出来” (The emancipation of natural science from theology dates from this act)“科学的发展从此便大踏步前进” (Thence forward, the de
6、velopment of the sciences proceeded with giant strides.),B. Johannes Kepler 约翰尼斯开普勒,The Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs 天体运行论德国天文学家、物理学家、数学家 Keplers Laws开普勒定律: three laws of planetary motion三大行星定律,three laws of planetary motion三大定律,1. Each planet moves in an ellipse, not a perfect circle, with the s
7、un at one focus;行星沿椭圆轨道运行，太阳占这椭圆的一个焦点。 Each planet moves more rapidly when near the sun than farther from it. 一个行星和太阳之间的连接线，在相等的时间内扫出相等的面积，乃行星在离太阳近的地方运行得比在远的地方快。3. The distance of each planet from the sun bears s definite relation to the time period the planet took to complete a revolution around th
8、e sun. 一个行星的公转周期平方与这行星和太阳之间的平均距离成正比。,Keplers Second Law,Galileo Galilei伽利略伽利莱 (1564-1642),The greatest name in the physics of the period.意大利天文学家数学家物理学家哲学家,Galileo Galilei伽利略伽利莱,The first to apply the telescope to the study of the sky他是利用 望远镜观测天体取得大量成果的第一位科学,His discoveries:,acceleration in dynamics
9、动力加速度The law if inertia 惯性定律The law of falling bodies 落体定律Major Works: Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger)星空使者,3.牛顿（Isaac Newton ),In mathematics, Newton invented calculus.微积分In optics光学, he discovered that white light is composed of all the colors of the spectrum.In Physics, he discovered the l
10、aw of the universal gravitation万有引力定律.Newtons discoveries were summarized in his great book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy 自然哲学的数学解读,蒲伯为牛顿墓碑而题的未被采用的墓志铭：,Nature and Natures laws lay hid in night, God said, “Let Newton be,” and all was light
11、.自然界和自然规律隐藏在黑暗中上帝说，让牛顿出生吧！于是一切都是光明。,牛顿名言,If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of Giants如果说我看得远，那是因为我站在巨人的肩膀上。 。,4。莱布尼茨（Leibniz ),Leibniz was a German philosopher, scientist, mathematician, historian and diplomat. He opposed the Cartesian account of matter. He believed that the w
12、orld was made of simple, active, unconcerned and unextended substances, each from its point of view reflecting the whole universe, and all coordinated in pre-established harmony.He and Newton invented independently the Differential and integral calculus.,5.Invention of New Instruments,Great progress
13、es of 17th:A. astronomyB. dynamics动力学C. invention of scientific instruments microscope显微镜1590 telescope望远镜1608 thermometer温度计 barometer气压计 pendulum clock摆锤钟1656,Two merits shared by the great scientists of the 17th century:,First, they showed boldness in framing hypotheses. Second, they all had imme
14、nse patience in observation. The combination of the two merits brought about fundamental changes in mans scientific and philosophical thinking.,Philosophy, Politics and Literature in England,Francis Bacon (1561-1626)Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) John Locke (1632-1704)John Milton and the English Revoluti
15、on,Francis Bacon培根 (1561-1626),Fancies Bacon was an English philosopher, essayist and statesman.Major works: The Advancement of Learning 论学习的循序渐进, The New Atlantis新亚特兰蒂斯. The Novum Organism （New Method） and Essays18篇散文集,-by 王飞,The whole basis of his philosophy was practical:To give mankind mastery o
16、ver the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and scientific inventions.He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately be blended with it as in Scholasticism.,3. Induction / The Inductive Method 归纳法 n. The Inductive Method was initiated by Francis Bacon.
17、. In plainer words, induction means reasoning from particular facts or individual cases to a general conclusion. . This inductive method was put forward in opposition to the accepted deductive method 演绎法 , well established in Europe for almost a thousand yeas by Aristotle. - n. reasoning from a know
18、n principle to the unknown and from the general to the specific.,Bacons works: - Essays 58篇散文集,特点：They are noted for their striking terse style and sharp observation about life. 言简意赅 观察敏锐Some famous quotations from Bacon:Knowledge is power. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and so
19、me few to be chewed and digested. （Of Studies）论学习Reading makes a full man , conference a ready man, and writing an exact man. （Ibid） 同上Books must follow science, and not science books. 读书，不可死读书。 Wives are young mens mistresses, companions for middle age, and old mens nurses.,Thomas Hobbes霍布斯(1588-16
20、79),Thomas Hobbes, author of Leviathan 论政治, one of the most celebrated political treatises in European literature.,a. Hobbess Materialist ViewsHobbes argued that our knowledge comes from experience.b. The Natural State of WarHobbes believed that man is selfish by naturec. The Laws of NatureAccording
21、 to Hobbes, the fundamental law of nature is the general rule of reason that every man ought to Endeavour for peace.,d. The Theory of the Social Contract社会契约论Hobbes maintained that in order to get men out of the miserable condition of war, keep then in awe, and tie them by fear of punishment to the
22、performance of their agreements, and observation of the laws of nature, it is necessary that there should be a common power or government backed by force and able to punish.,John Locke约翰洛克 (1632-1704),English empiricist经验主义者Political philosopher,a. Lockes Materialist ViewsHis materialist views are e
23、xpressed in one of his chief works Essay Concerning Human Understanding（1690）人类理解论. His basic theory is that all our ideas are ultimately derived from sensation or from reflection, that these two make up experience and that all our knowledge springs from experience.In the first book of the essay ,Lo
24、cke argued as against Plato（柏拉图） , Descartes（笛卡尔） and the scholastics, that neither principles nor ideas are innate.,b. Lockes Political PhilosophyIn 1690, Locke published his two Treatises of Civil Government 国内政府契约论.Locke flatly rejected the theory of divine right of kings. 公开反对君权神授He ridiculed th
25、e theory of transmission of royal authority . 批判王位世袭制Locke put forward the idea of the state of nature: “All men are naturally free and equal in the state of nature.”,4.For Locke, Natural Law, therefore, means a universally obligatory moral law 广泛的强制性的道德法则 promulgated by the human reason, whereas fo
26、r Hobbes it means the law of power, force and fraud. 5.Locke firmly believed in natural rights. 天赋人权 The natural right is the right of private property.,c. The Social Contract（社会契约论） Locke believed that society is out of necessity, convenience and mans own interest, and therefore, society is natural
27、 to man.He emphasized that the social contract must be understood as involving the individuals consent to submit to the will of the majority and that the will of the majority must prevail.He also believed that the ruler of government is one partner of the social contract.,洛克名言,Wherever law ends, tyr
28、anny begins.法律的终点便是暴政的起点。Virtue is harder to be got than knowledge of the world; and, if lost in a young man, is seldom recovered.品德比世上的知识更难得，一个青年一旦失去了它，就很难复得。,Major Differences between Locke and Hobbess Social contract,First , Hobbes argued men enter a social contract to escape the state of war, fo
29、r, in his view, men are enemies and at war with each other. Locke argued men are equal and that they enter a social contract by reason.Secondly, Hobbes argued that individuals surrender their rights to one man, the sovereign whose power is absolute. Locke argued that the individuals surrender their
30、rights to the community as a whole. According to him, by majority vote a representative is chosen, but his power is not absolute. If he fails to implement the peoples will, the people have the right to overthrow him.,4. John Milton(约翰弥尔顿)and English Revolution,John Milton British poet The man of tho
31、ught Ranks with Shakespeare & Chaucer in English literature,John Milton (约翰弥尔顿) and the English Revolution（英国革命）,The English Revolution took place in the middle of the 17th century.By the end of the 16th century, Calvinismklvinizm（喀尔文主义） had spread to England. As a result, the Puritan Movement（清教运动）
32、was started in England.,Puritan Movement,In 1642, the Civil War broke out between the king and the Parliament p:lmnt and the English Bourgeoisie won the victory. Cromwell became the head of the government known as the Protector.After the death of Cromwell in 1658, the country was in confusion. In 16
33、60, Charles II, the son of the beheaded king, returned from France and was put on the throne.,Cromwell,Charles II,In 1688, the Dutch king William and his wife Mary were invited to be the joint rulers of England. Thus the shorted restoration ended. This event of 1688 was called the Glorious Revolutio
34、n（光荣革命）.,In December, 1689, the Bill of Rights（权利法案） was enacted by the English Parliament. It established the supremacy of the Parliament and put an end to divine monarchy in England.,In English Literature, John Milton ranks with Shakespeare and Chaucer（乔叟( 英国诗人， 坎特伯雷故事集的作者)）.Three master epic poem
35、s: Paradise Lost 失乐园, Paradise Regained 复乐园 and Samson Agonistes 力士参孙.,失乐园Paradise Lost,Paradise Lost is a long epic poem devided into 12 books. The theme is the fall of men: mans disobendience and the loss thereupon of Paradise, with its prime cause-Satan.（撒旦）,失乐园Paradise Lost,Of Mans first disobed
36、ience, and the fruitOf that forbidden tree, whose mortal tasteBrought death into the world, and all our woeWith loss of Eden.关于人类那次违反上帝的命令偷尝了那禁树上的致命之果，从而把死亡带到人间，以及失去伊甸园带来的种种悲哀。,Enclosure Movement: 圈地运动Puritan Movement: the puritan principle emphasized the liberty of the individual soul before God. 清
37、教运动The Glorious Revolution: 光荣革命（不流血革命） Bill of Rights:权利法案,There were two leaders in the English Revolution. Cromwell（克伦威尔） was the man of action and Milton the man of thought.,Iv Descartes; French Classicism,1.Rene Descartes (1596-1650)The Method of Cartesian Doubt（笛卡尔式怀疑） Descartess Theory of Kno
38、wledgeInnate Ideas （天赋观念论） Descartess Dualism（二元论）2.French Classicism（古典主义） a. Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) b. Jean Racine (1637-1699) c. Moliere (1622-1673),Powerpoint Templates,Background,France in the 17th century , unlike England in many ways,had just emerged as a nation state . The king was pow
39、erful.The trend towards nationalism and absolutism had beengrowing since the beginning of the century. In order toweaken the power of the nobility and strengthen his ownpower, the king made some concessions by encouraging thedevelopment of the middle class . On the other hand ,theFrench bourgeoisie（
40、中产阶级分子） was comparatively weak ,and they needed, for the time being, the help of the monarchy（君主制）. This situation inevitably affected thedevelopment of the French philosophy and literature.,1.Rene Descartes(1596-1650),It is generally believed thatmodern philosophy begins withFrancis Bacon in Englan
41、d andwith Rene Descartes in France.Descartes was a philosopher,physicist and mathematician.He was educated at the JesuitCollege of La Fleche(法国耶稣派学院)which gave him a goodgrounding in modern mathematics.he enlisted in the Dutch(荷兰) armyand was able to spend years ofUndisturbed quiet in Holland whereH
42、e Worked at geometry andphilosophy.,Powerpoint Templates,Descartess major works,1. Rules for the Direction ofThe Mind指导理智的规则;2.Discourse on method方法谈;3.Meditations ConcerningFirst Philosophy andObjections and Replies沉思录;,Powerpoint Templates,a. The method of Cartesian Doubt,Descartes believed that t
43、he overthrow of the present opinion and thebreak-up with the past philosophy included ,are necessary condition ofestablishing something first and lasting in the science .In the Discourseon method , Descartes formulated four rules in expressing his method:1.Accept nothing as true which I did not clea
44、rly recognize to be so.（永远不接受任何我自己不清楚的真理。就是说只要没有经过自己切身体会的问题，不管有什么权威的结论，都可以怀疑。） 2. Divide every question into manageable parts. （可以将要研究的复杂问题，尽量分解为多个比较简单的小问题，一个一个地分开解决。）3.Begin with the simplest issues and ascend to the more complex. （将这些小问题从简单到复杂排列，先从容易解决的问题着手。）4.Review frequently enough to retain th
45、e whole argument at once. （将所有问题解决后，再综合起来检验，看是否完全，是否将问题彻底解决了。）,Powerpoint Templates,I doubt, therefore I think: I think, therefore I am (我疑故我思；我思故我在）,b. Descartess Theory of Knowledge,Powerpoint Templates,c .Innate Ideas (天赋观念论),在认识论上，笛卡尔提出了著名的“天赋观念论”，他将观念分为三种：(1)通过感官得来的感性知识；(2)先天固有的天赋观念；(3)虚构的知识，他认
46、为第一类观念根本不可靠，第三类观念列是虚妄的，只有第二类天赋观念是清楚明白的，通过它可以获得可靠的知识，笛卡尔贬低感性认识，过份强调理性认识作用，使他陷入唯理论的错误中。,Powerpoint Templates,2. French Classicism,French classicism of the 17th century was not conscious of being a classical revival.It intended to produce a literature ,French tothe core ,which was worthy of Greek and C
47、lassical ideals. This neoclassicism（新古典主义） reached its climax in France in the 17th century .,Powerpoint Templates,Three Characteristics of French Neoclassicism,1.In the French classical literature, man was viewed as a social being consciously and willingly subject to discipline.2. Rationalism was b
48、elieved to be able to discover the best principles of human conduct and the universal principles of natural laws. 3. French classicism was fond of using classical forms, classical themes and values.,Powerpoint Templates,a. Pierre Corneille柯奈高乃依,Corneille was the first greatFrench neoclassicalDramatist .He wrote bothtragedies and comedies buthis masterpiece was tragi-comedy, Le cid熙德,
