1、Power,The ability or potential to influence others in a desired directionPower is not inherently bad - The need to influence and direct others is an integral part of management,Power: Dependency Model,Reciprocal dimensionsIndividuals cede power to the extent that they must (or perceive they must) re
2、ly on others to accomplish tasks.Individuals who are relied upon accrue power.,Power and Dependency,Dependency increases when:Jobs become more specializedTasks become more interdependentAuthority is diffusedEnvironment becomes more uncertainTechnology increases,Power: Exchange Model,Not merely a cou
3、nteraction to dependencyPower is an exchange process. Part of social interactionOrganization is run through a series of individual negotiations,Power: Exchange Model,Person 1 commands resources needed by Person 2Person 1 exchanges resources, in return Person 2 complies with Person 1s requests,Power:
4、 Empowerment Model,Power is not a finite resourceOrganizational power grows through sharing it,Power: Empowerment Model,Effective use of power requires training and experience Power carries the concomitant need to act responsibly. Empowerment usually fails in cases where users have no pervious exper
5、ience in its use.,Power: Empowerment Model,Model has grown in popularity from recognition that powerlessness has adverse effects on orgs.e.g., lowered motivation and commitment,Power: Empowerment Model,Sources of Powerlessness1. Organizational Culture 2. Management Style 3. Job Design 4. Reward Syst
6、ems,Legitimacy of power,People will follow direction or be persuaded through a number of causes such as Fear of consequences of not obeying Desire for rewards Need for resources controlled by an individual Belief in the legitimacy of a persons power I.e., they wield moral authority or You believe th
7、at their direction will result in the greater good for an organization Legitimacy is the most difficult way to achieve power Hardest to unseat once its established,Power - sources,People derive power from 3 basic sources:1. The position they hold2. Their personal characteristics3. The resources or i
8、nformation they can access and control,Position Power,Power that is accrued by virtue of where you are in the organization:AuthorityLegitimate power: Subordinates obey orders because they view them as legitimate due to the position that a manager holds in the organization.,Position Power contd,Contr
9、ol of rewards and punishments: “Stick and carrot” power. May also be coercive power.Centrality: The degree to which a position is linked to and important to the activities of other individuals and subunits.,Personal Power,Based on individual knowledge and ability or personal influence over other ind
10、ividuals.Expertise:Based on unique or special knowledge.,Personal Power,Charisma/Referent:Personal charm and persuasiveness.Referent - person is attached to or identifies with an individual and therefore can be influencedIndividuals with charisma often develop referent power because they attract oth
11、ers to follow.,Personal Power,CoercionPower exercised through fear of adverse consequencesMy have adverse consequences such as stress, turnover and anxiety,Resource and Information Based Power,Control of Scarce Resources:Largely self-explanatory, but be sure you understand what resources are integra
12、l to your job. Not always obvious: e.g., keys to rooms, projectors etc.,Resource and Information Based Power,Control of resources can also include an individual/units ability to bring in resources from outside the organization. e.g., Successful grant writers often exert power beyond what may appear
13、from their position in an organization.,Resource and Information Based Power,Individuals or groups may themselves be scarce resources.Unsubstitutability:How hard is it for any other group or individual to perform certain tasks? How integral are these tasks to the organization?,Unsubstitutability,Ind
14、ividuals or groups often create these situations by performing duties, but not explaining how theyre done.Often discussed in computer centers in the debate over service provision versus end-user training.,Information is a resource,People who command information also command power. Maximally useful i
15、n:Situations of Uncertainty Individuals dislike uncertainty and individuals who can relieve this uncertainty acquire power(Dependency Relationship),Conflict and Negotiation,Conflict: “the process which begins when one party perceives that the other has frustrated or is about to frustrate some concer
16、n of his or hers.”,Conflict and Negotiation,In general, the likelihood of conflict increases when: Parties interact View their differences as incompatible See conflict as a constructive way of resolving disagreements,Conflict occurs when:,More specifically, conflict occurs when:1. Mutually exclusive
17、 goals or values exist in fact, or are perceived to exist, by the groups involved.2. Interaction is characterized by behavior designed to defeat, reduce, or suppress the opponent, or to gain a mutually designated victory,Conflict occurs when:,3. The groups face each other with mutually opposing acti
18、ons and counteractions.4. Each group attempts to create a relatively favored position in relation to the other.,Conflict is not inherently bad:,Positive outcomes:Better ideas/decisions New approaches to solve problems Surfacing and then resolving of long-standing problems Clarification of individual
19、 views Increased interest and creativity,Negative outcomes of conflict,Negative outcomes:Increased distance between people Climate of mistrust and suspicion Resistance rather than teamwork Increased turnover Feelings of defeat/humiliation,Perception and conflict,Perceptions play a large role in conf
20、licts.Individuals may frame their perceptions along 3 dimensions:a. Relationship/Taskb. Emotional/Intellectualc. Cooperate/Win How individuals or groups handle conflict often depends on how they frame it in each dimension,Whether the outcome of conflict is good or bad depends on a variety of factors
21、:,Sociocultural context Issues involved Cognitive frame i.e., competitive outlooks are less likely to seek a compromise or functional outcome 4. Characteristics of the participantsknowledge, experience, personal style influence outcomes 5. Misjudgments and Misperceptions,Stages of Conflict,Conflict
22、changes over time1. LatentConditions for conflict existfoundations for disagreement2. PerceivedDifferences are made public3. FeltInvolved parties begin to feel tense as the result of conflicti.e., the conflict becomes personal,Stages of Conflict,4. Manifest conflictObservable behavior emerges that i
23、s designed to pursue one partys goals or frustrate anothers.5. Conflict aftermath,Conflict Resolution,Basic paradigms of negotiation:Distributive bargaining Integrative bargaining,Conflict Resolution,Distributive - Classic view. Adversarial roles. One partys claim is another partys loss. Offer/Count
24、er-offer strategy.Power is of paramount importance.,Conflict Resolution,Integrative - Transform the process into a mutually advantageous one.Problem solving rather than win-lose approach.,Conflict resolution styles,1. Competingsatisfying your concerns but not the other partysWorks well in:emergencie
25、sunpopular decisionsone party is absolutely correctone party has significantly more power,Conflict resolution styles,2. Collaborationproblem solving with the aim of maximizing satisfaction to all parties (integrated solution)working together to achieve common goals Works well when:Both sets of goals
26、 are too important to compromiseFeelings have interfered with a relationship,Conflict resolution styles,3. CompromiseSharing positions, but not moving to extremes of assertiveness or cooperationWorks well when:Both sets of goals are important but enough so to make either party assertiveParties have
27、equal powerTime pressures are significant,Conflict resolution styles,4. AvoidanceWithdrawing or avoiding the conflictSatisfy neither their own nor the other partys concernsWorks well when:Issues are trivialIndividuals have little chance of satisfying their goalsResolving the conflict will result in
28、significant disruption,Conflict resolution styles,5. AccommodationOne party satisfies the others concerns without addressing their ownWorks well when:One party realizes they are wrongIssues are more important to others than yourselfBuilding social credits for later use is importantHarmony & stabilit
29、y are importantSubordinates need to learn from their mistakes,Conflict resolution - A few practical points,Look for points of agreementDont argue over areas where you agree,Conflict resolution - Formal Methods,I. Grievance ProceduresFormal process by which workers complain to management in cases whe
30、re they feel mistreated or their rights were violated.,Grievance Procedures,Provides a mechanism to:1. respond to workers complaints 2. clarify workers and employers rights 3. formally bring a complaint to the attention of management (and or union officials) 4. define a complaint 5. structure a meet
31、ing between parties,Conflict Resolution,II. Mediation and Arbitration Third-party interventions with trained intermediaries.Mediator - facilitates communication and resolution between two or more parties.Arbitrator - acts as judge and makes a decision on an issue.,Mediation and Arbitration,Basic neg
32、otiation paradigms are differentArbitration - trying to convince a judge that your side is the right oneMediation - Trying to reach a mutual point of agreement,Techniques for more successful negotiations,1. PrepareUnderstand the problem thoroughlyUnderstand the other side thoroughly,Negotiation tech
33、niques,2. Evaluate AlternativesWhat can you live with?What do you ideally want?What cant you live with?Understand what you can and cant bargain over.,Negotiation techniques,3. What are the actual interests of both parties?You know what theyre asking for, but what do they really want?What alternative
34、s can we come up with that will accommodate both parties?What are your shared interests?What can we do that will benefit both parties?,Questions to encourage reasonable settlements.,1. What do you want to accomplish today?2. What are the risks of following a present course of action?3. What are the
35、realistic alternatives to settlement?,Questions to encourage reasonable settlements.,4. Is the offer you are making fair? Would you make the same offer to someone you respect? 5. Is the offer in line with the general parameters of similar offers in the same situation? 6. How would you react if you w
36、ere the other party and this offer were made to you?,Other things to remember,1. Attack the problem not the people.2. Avoid the tendency to respond to an escalation in the conflict.3. Dont yield on every point, however, at least if its really important to you.,Other things to remember,4. Understand how the other side thinks about the world.5. Be realistic about the value of your concessions and those of the other side.,
