1、16.49仅 翻译绿色部分Tower Karst and Cone Karst1ZHU Xuewen ZHU Dehao ZHANG Yuanhai(Institute of Karst Geology, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences)ContentsINTRODUCTION1The basic meaning of tower karst and cone karst.4Fenglin karst and fengcong karst .5Cockpit karst and Mogotes karst .8Cockpit .9Mogotes k
2、arst 9The main distribution area and characteristics of tower karst and cone karst.10Southern China Karst .11Northern Vietnam Karst.12Karst in other southeastern Asia countries and cuba13Java Karst .13Jamaica Karst .14Puerto Rico Karst16The systematic factors to form tower karst and cone karst17The
3、lithology, stratigraphy and extension in dimension .17Tropical or subtropical climate with abundant rain 18Tectonic uplifting or local base level dropping20Advantageous geological structure .20Ground water level controlling21Importance of allogenic water.22Very significance of transit river 23The fo
4、rming system of fenglin karst and fengcong karst 23Single system24Localized system 25Large scale regional system .25The forming and evolution of fenglin karst and fengcong karst .25The forming of fenglin karst and fengcong karst.26The systematic relation between forming and distribution of fenglin k
5、arst and fengcong karst .291This chapter is suggested to write for Volume 6 “karst Geomorphology” of Geomorphologyseries by Prof. Amos Frumkin in Jerusalem University.2The simultaneous evolution of fenglin and fengcong .31The age of fenglin and fengcong development .37The comparison of main features
6、 between fenglin cone karst is called fengcong in Chinese, Kegel in Germany, cockpit and polygonal karst in English and gunung in Indonesian. Most of these terms mean limestone remnant hill, corrosion mound, so the terminology of tower karst and cone karst is not accurate and satisfied to definite t
7、his kind of karst type.应该指出：以喀斯特石峰（或残丘）的“塔（Tower） ”及“ 锥（cone ） ”之形态作为两类喀斯特的命名同样存在弊端。首先是这两类喀斯特的石峰（残丘）并非分别就是“塔” 形和“锥” 3形。在坚硬碳酸盐岩分布区（如中国、越南） ，塔状喀斯特（fenglin）地形中的“锥” 和锥状喀斯特（fengcong ）地形中的“塔”均十分普遍。更有完全具备峰林（Tower）喀斯特属性，却在平坦无垠的平原地面之上只有星星点点的锥状（cone）残丘，而不见塔状（Tower）石丘的踪影。如中国著名的春日黄花景观地，云南东部边界上的罗平残丘平原；湖北利川市谋道、白杨
8、坝一带的残丘平原等。这一地域内半圆形及圆锥孤丘之形态，均受控于其三叠系薄层状不纯的灰岩和白云岩之岩性。而在新生界软质碳酸盐岩条件下（如瓜哇、牙买加、波多黎各等地） ，陡峭而挺拔的“塔”形残峰（丘）是难以见到的。其次，因为有“塔” 作为此类喀斯特的形象标志，会误将孤立而不成群，更不具生成系统特征的塔形石峰（残丘）个案，也纳入塔状喀斯特类型之中，而这种范例目前在中国并不鲜见。因此在科学上一定要将塔状喀斯特和锥状喀斯特作为一个喀斯特生成系统或同一系统中的两个子系统来鉴别。从这个意义上讲，中国的“峰林喀斯特”（fenglin karst）和“ 峰丛喀斯特”（fengcong karst）术语，显然具有
9、显著的优越性，值得推荐。There is a malpractice to definite these two karst types by the shape of tower or cone of karst pinnacle or remnant hill. Firstly, there is not only the tower or cone shapes in these two types of karst peaks or remnant hills; for example, there are only cone remnant hills in broad karst
10、plain in Luoping in the eastern Yunnan Province and Lichuan in the western Hubei Province in China, although tower shape of tower karst (fenglin) and cone shape of cone karst are very common in hard carbonate rocks area in China and in Vietnam, because the remnant cone hills are developed in the thi
11、n Triassic limestone and dolomite. And there is very few tower peaks or remnant hills in the Cenozoic soft carbonate rocks such as in Java, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Secondly, those isolated peaks could be misunderstood to be tower karst by mistake for this tower shape, and it was thought to be tower
12、 karst in China. So tower karst and cone karst should be taken as a karst system or two subsystems of one karst system, and the terminology of fenglin karst and fengcong karst has a remarkable superiority to be suggested to definite this two karst landforms.鉴于景观上的奇特与秀丽，塔状和锥状喀斯特很早就被人们发现与关注。在中国的明代，有一位
13、伟大的旅行家和地理学家徐霞客（1587-1641）于公元 1636-1638 年间，在他的最后一次旅行中，详细地考察了广西、贵州和云南这片世界上最雄奇壮丽、分布面积最为广大的塔状和锥状喀斯特区。当时他称喀斯特地形为“石山”，非喀斯特地形为“土山” 。尤在1637 年 5 月至 1638 年 4 月期间，在塔状和锥状喀斯特地形相互叠出、山水风光 “甲天下”的广西桂林、阳朔、柳州、大新、天等、德保、上林、宜州及河池各地的考察中，他更是把两类喀斯特的地形特征、形态种类、洞穴类型、水文及水文地质属性等描述得栩栩如生，淋漓尽致。由于他具有高素质的文学修养和对自然现象“由表及里” 的观察才能，读他的“游记
14、”时，就像同时有一部生动的记录影片在映示其所载所云。他身在峰林之中，或已入峰丛之境，均清晰地呈现在游记的字里行间。所以说，我国的峰林和峰丛两类喀斯特的基本概念是由徐霞客在当年的游记中描绘出来的。著名地理学家侯仁之教授评价说：徐霞客“ 对于西南广大地区岩溶地貌的考察，已经开始进入了规律性探讨的新阶段，因此这一部分游记，也就成为世界科学史上最早出现的有关这一研究的宝贵文献”(侯仁之，1986)。任美锷在评述徐霞客对峰林与峰丛喀斯特的研究贡献时指出：”短短几个字，生动地绘出了峰林的地面特点，没有长期的、仔细的实地观察和卓越的文学修养，是写不出这样生动、简括的语句的。我国峰林 术语即从 徐霞客游记的描
15、述脱胎而来。徐霞客指出。我国峰林的分布从道县至罗平，也与我们实地调查结果相符，可见游记的记载是非常翔实的。徐霞客关于峰林的记载写于 1639 年（应是 16371638 年，引者注） ，比西欧 Junghuhn 的著作（1845 ）足足早了两个世纪，而且其内容也比 Junghuhn 著作更详细、充实，所以徐霞客无疑是世界最早论述热带岩溶的学者”（任美锷，1986） 。世界知名科技史学家李约瑟在其巨著中国科学技术史中对徐霞客在这方面的成就也有极高的评价，他说：“徐霞客游记读来并不象是 17 世纪的学者所写的东西，倒象是一位 20 世纪的野外勘测家所写的考察记录，他不但在分析各种地貌上具有惊人的能
16、力，而且能够有系统地使用各种专门术语”（ Joseph.N.1959） 。Tower karst and cone karst were paid attention at once as they were discovered at the earliest time for its unusual landscape. Xu Xiake (1587-1641) is a great pioneer traveller and geographer in Chinas Ming Dynasty, he investigated widespread tower karst and cone
17、 karst area in Guangxi, 4Guizhou and Yunnan Provinces during 1636-1638, and he named the karst topography as “the stone mountain”, the non-karst topography as “the soil mountain”. In particular when he inspected karst around Guilin in detail, he descript vividly the karst phenomenon including karst
18、landform, karst types, caves, hydrogeology and hydrology in “Xu Xiake Travaler Note”, and firstly used the terminology of fenglin karst and fengcong karst.距今 372 年（1637）前，由徐霞客在其游记中描绘出的中国南方峰林和峰丛喀斯特理念，经过长期的历史沉默，于上世纪 30-40 年代多位前辈学者的再调查，特别是由著名地理学家曾昭璇教授正式命名（曾昭璇，1952）和岩溶学概论 （任美锷、刘振中等，1983）一书的出版，峰林喀斯特和峰丛喀斯
19、特术语及其科学概念便在中国广泛使用。据悉，Tower karst 和 Cone karst 是由上世纪 20 年代一支法国考察队在考察中国南部喀斯特后提出来的。目前也分别与前者并行不悖地在中国流行。较早时期，法国喀斯特学家Corbel（1940）赞誉中国南方的热带喀斯特为世界上最奇特的喀斯特区。英国学者Sweeting（1995）也对以桂林为代表的中国热带喀斯特称赞有加。In 1637, Xu Xia-ke in Xus Travel Notesdescribed fenglin karst and fengcong karst firstly, and science 19030-1940,
20、 many Chinese scholars made investigation again, specially the famous geographer, Prof. Zeng Zhaoxuan (Zeng Zhaoxuan, 1952) officially named this terminology and so did the book of “Introduction to Karst” (Ren Meie, Liu Zhengzhong, 1983), and then the terminology of fenglin karst and fengcong karst
21、were widely used in China. The concept of tower karst and cone karst were firstly proposed by a French investigation team when they explored South China Karst in 1920s, and they are used popularly together with fenglin karst and fengcong karst in China. In last century, Corbel (1940), a French karst
22、ologist praised south China karst to be the most unusual Karst in the world. British scholar Sweeting (1995) also to taken Guilin as a representative tropical karst in the world.欧洲学者对热带喀斯特的考察，最早是德国旅行家 Tunghuhn，F（1845）关于瓜哇（Java） kegel karst 的报导。较早期相关的考察、研究与报导还有：Grund，A（1914）关于亚洲喀斯特；Day ，MJ(1928)、Conr
23、ad ，Aub（1969）关于热带喀斯特；Lehmann，H.（ 1936）关于瓜哇喀斯特；Sawkins，J. （1869） 、Zans，V.A. （1950 ） 、Danes， J.V.、Lehmann，H. 和 Blondel 关于牙买加（Jamaica）cockpit 喀斯特；Lehmann，H（ 1954）关于加勒比（Caribbean）喀斯特；以及 Corbel，J.（1940 ） 、Lehmann，H（ 1954）关于中国南方喀斯特等等。自上世纪 40-50 年代以来，各重要热带喀斯特地点的有关文献与研究成果表明，全球的喀斯特研究已进入空前频繁的新时代。Those Europea
24、n scholars who made investigation of tropical karst are German traveller Tunghuhn, F., he wrote papers about Kegel karst in Java, and Grund, A. (1914) about Asian karst, Day, M.J.(1928), Conrad, Aub (1969) about tropical karst; Lehmann, H. (1936) about Java karst, Sawkins J.(1869), Zans, V.A.(1950),
25、 Danes, J.V., Lehmann, H. and Blondel about cockpit karst in Jamaica; Lehmann, H (1954) about Caribbean karst; As well as Corbel, J. (1940), Lehmann, H (1954) about South China karst and so on. Since 1940-1950, the literatures and the research results indicated that the global karst research entered
26、 the unprecedented perfect new times.The basic meaning of tower karst and cone karst塔状喀斯特和锥状喀斯特属碳酸盐岩喀斯特，是在优越的物质条件和活跃的动力作用下形成的一种地形特征最醒目，喀斯特形态最多样，水文地质属性最独特的全喀斯特类型。其形成与地质条件及气候环境关系极为密切。也是一种典型化了的特有的热带喀斯特。二者亦显然为同一喀斯特生成系统。5Both tower karst and cone karst are 碳酸盐岩喀斯特, which is a complete karst type with the
27、 most outstanding landform features, the most diverse karst formations, and the most unique hydrogeological features, formed under the conditions of both rich resources and active 动力作用. Tower and cone karst are typical and unique tropical karsts, formed under certain geologic conditions and climates
28、. The two obviously belong to the same karst systerm.按喀斯特形成物质条件的差异，可将塔状和锥状喀斯特分为两种基本类型，即坚硬而致密碳酸盐岩层中的峰林和峰丛（fenglin 和 fengcong）喀斯特及软弱多孔碳酸盐岩层中的Cockpit 和 Mogotes 喀斯特。According to the forming conditions, tower karst and cone karst are classified as two basic categories fenglin and fengcong karst formed fr
29、om hard carbonate rocks, as well as Cockpit karst and Mogotes karst formed from soft carbonate rocks. Fenglin karst and fengcong karst发育于质地坚硬而致密的碳酸盐岩地层中，地层沉积时代主要是古生代和中生代。以古生代的泥盆纪、石炭纪和而二叠纪为主，次为中生代的三叠纪、侏罗纪和白垩纪。喀斯特形态以粗犷宏大、厚重峭削为特色，喀斯特作用强烈、深化而成熟。此类喀斯特主要分布在中国南方和越南北部，总面积近 150104km2。零星分布于东南亚地区及古巴，其塔状地形又以出现在
30、滨海及海湾地带见著。此类喀斯特以中国的“峰林和峰丛” 命名最为妥帖。Fenglin karst and fengcong karst are developed from hard carbonate rocks. Their 地层沉积时代 are mainly 泥盆纪、石炭纪 and 而二叠纪 of 古生代, as well as 三叠纪、侏罗纪和白垩纪 of 中生代 . Their karst landforms look grant, massive and steep, due to the strong, deep and mature karst effect. This kind
31、 of karst is mainly distributed in south China and north Vietnam, with a total acreage of almost 150104km2. Apart from that, there are also some distributions on small scale in SE Asia and Cuba, with a feature of tower shape landform located in coastal areas and areas alone bays. The most suitable t
32、erminology for this kind of karst is the Chinese words“fenglin and fengcong”.峰林和峰丛喀斯特是石质大片裸露，地貌景观特显，生成形态最多样化，区域成片分布的一种典型的热带和亚热带喀斯特，一种全喀斯特类型和同一喀斯特生成系统。由峰林和峰丛两个子系统构成，可简称为峰丛喀斯特（生成）系统或峰林喀斯特（生成）系统。Fenglin and fengcong karsts belong to the same karst systerm, which is a complete karst type. It is a typica
33、l tropical and subtropical karst with the features of uncovered rocks on a large scale, outstanding landforms, the most diverse formations, and regional distributions. This karst system consists of two subsystems, which could be called Fengcong karst system or Fenglin karst system in short. 峰林喀斯特子系统
34、系流水型喀斯特。由离立分散的石峰，被分割成块状、岛状、条带状连座石峰，散布于基本平展的地面（谷地、盆地、坡立谷及平原地面等）之上构成。多具奇山秀水的自然景观。石峰形态受控于岩石及地层的性质及地质构造条件，有塔状，锥状，筒柱状及复合形态等，高数十米至 200 以上，直径数十米至 100m 以上。如质纯层厚并水平产状的石灰岩层，多呈塔状及筒柱状（如桂林、阳朔） 。薄层灰岩及白云岩则多为锥状或缓丘状（如长江三峡南岸） 。当石峰底座为白云岩，上部为灰岩时，可出现上塔下锥的复合形态（如广西柳州） ，徐霞客将其描述为“锥处囊中”（徐霞客，1637 ） 。峰林喀斯特区的石峰以峰体洞穴化程度高为特点，尤以将地
35、面水导入含水层为主要功能的脚洞最为普遍，故峰林喀斯特区的孤立石山（峰）有“无山不洞”之说。成熟的峰林喀斯特区地下水面接近地表，构成“epiphreatic”含水层。地面常有潭、池、沼、湖等水体分布，并有完整的水文网系统。其垂向剖面上的水文地质分带已不完备，尤其是包气带已不具重要性。6The fenglin karst subsystem is a 流水型喀斯特. It is formed from isolated karst pinnacles separated by water flows into peaks of lumpish shape, island shape and str
36、ip shape on flat surface（谷地、盆地、坡立谷及平原地面等）. The landscape normally is spectacular. Subject to the natures of the rockes and 地层 as well as the geologic structures, the formations of peak are in tower, cone, column shapes and/or their combinations, from dozens of meters to over 200 meters in height and
37、 from dozens of meters to 100 meters in diameter. Pure, thick and 水平产状的 limestone normally develops into tower or column shapes, like those in Guilin and Yangshuo area; 薄层灰岩及白云岩 normally develops into cone or 缓丘 shapes, like those alone the south bank of the Three Gorges of Yangzi River. While peaks
38、 with 白云岩 base and 灰岩 top could develop into a combined shape of tower top and cone base, like those in Liuzhou city, Guangxi Province, which were described as “cones in a bag”by Xu Xia-ke（1637 ）. One of the features of fenglin karst is the high level of caves contained in the bodies of peak, especi
39、ally 脚洞 , which lead surface water into 含水层, are most commonly seen. Thus, there is a saying -“No peaks without any caves”. In mature fenglin areas, the underground water levels are near the ground surface and form “epiphreatic”含水层. Normally there are deep pools, ponds, billabongs and lakes on the g
40、round, as well as complete 水文网 systems. Its 水文地质分带 on vertical dimension is not complete, especially the 包气带 has no significance any more. 峰林地形有峰林谷地，峰林坡立谷、峰丛平原及孤峰平原等类型。峰林谷地沿地面主要河谷分布，泛滥洪水在喀斯特地形的塑造中居重要地位。峰林坡立谷多为与非喀斯特邻界线上的“ 边缘型 ”，主要依靠外源水的流入与洪水泛滥。亦有在峰丛地形之中由底部抵达含水层饱气带的大型洼地发展而成，有地表河和孤峰是主要标志。峰林平原是在具有epiphr
41、eatic 特性的平原地面上耸立有相互离立的孤峰（多同时有小片岛状峰丛存在） ，如桂林所在的区域。周边外源水的流入并在地面泛滥（主要在雨季） ，是峰林平原形成的主动力。当平原地面上的孤峰特别稀疏时，便称作孤峰平原。Fenglin landform consists of various types, such as 峰林谷地，峰林坡立谷、峰丛平原及孤峰平原. 峰林谷地 distributes alone major valleys on ground surface, and floods play important roles in developing the karst. 峰林坡立谷
42、is mainly an “edge type”alone the border between karst and non-karst, which developed mainly by the flows of 外源水 and floods. While some 峰林坡立谷 were developed from large 洼地 s which reach 含水层饱气带 at the bottom. Surface rivers and isolate peaks are signatures of this kind of karst. 峰林平原 s are plains with
43、 epiphreatic feature and isolated peaks normally also with peak clusters in island shape on small scale, e.g. Guilin area. The main driving force of the forming of 峰林平原 s is flows of 外源水from surrounding area and their floods in raining season. When isolated peaks on a plain are quite far away from e
44、ach others, then this type of karst is named 孤峰平原.峰丛喀斯特子系统为入渗型喀斯特。由丛聚而连座的峰群，间以大量的落水洞、竖井、漏斗、洼地、谷地（干谷、盲谷、坡立谷）等以“入渗式”为主导的形态构成。多具山势挺拔巍峨，景观恢宏壮丽的品质。石峰多以锥状为主，偶见塔状、筒柱状者。因有漏斗、洼地、谷地相间，故峰间多垭口。峰洼（含漏斗）或峰垭高差，自数十米至数百米。高差在 200米以上者被称作“峰丛深洼” 。地表虽常有过境河通过，但缺乏完整的水文网。地下水位深埋，具有完备的含水层垂向水文地质分带（即自上而下的表层带、包气带、季节变动带和潜流带）和地下水流系
45、统。包气带和季节性变动带在喀斯特作用中具有特别的重要性，是峰丛喀斯特最明显的水文地质特性。由于岩层大片裸露，地形变化多端，含水层水动力活跃，喀斯特作用面广大，峰丛喀斯特所形成的喀斯特形态类型，在各类喀斯特中最为丰富而多样。有地表的溶沟溶槽，石芽、石林，落水洞竖井，漏斗、洼地，干谷，盲谷，坡立谷，峡谷，天生桥，伏流；地下的洞穴、大厅，地下河系统，间歇泉以及地表地下共有的大型天坑（tiankeng）等。洞穴类型多、规模大是峰丛区的又一特征，多地下大厅，还有深数百米至千米以上的垂直竖井。Fengcong karst subsystem belongs to 入渗型 karst. It consist
46、s of peak clusters with connected bases and many “入渗式”formations such as 落水洞、竖井、漏斗、洼地、谷地（干谷、盲谷、7坡立谷）. The peaks normally are steep and grant, forming spectacular landscape. They are mainly in cone shapes, sometimes tower or column shapes. There are many 垭口 s between peaks, due to the existence of 漏斗
47、、洼地、谷地 among peaks. The 高差 s of 峰垭 s or 峰洼s（including 漏斗 s）vary from dozens of meters to several hundreds. Those with a 高差 more than 200 meters are named “峰丛深洼”. There are often transit rivers on the ground, but still lack of a complete 水文网. Underground water levers are low. There are complete 含水层垂向
48、水文地质分带-表层带、包气带、季节变动带和潜流带 from top to bottom- as well as underground water system. Due to the large scale of uncovered 岩层, diversity of landforms, active 水动力 of 含水层 and wide rang of karst effect, the fenglin karst has the most diverse karst formation types, including 地表的溶沟溶槽，石芽、石林，落水洞竖井，漏斗、洼地，干谷，盲谷，坡
49、立谷，峡谷，天生桥，伏流；地下的洞穴、大厅，地下河系统，间歇泉以及地表地下共有的大型天坑（tiankeng）等. Another feature of fenglin karst is the large scale and great diversity of caves. There are many 地下大厅 s, as well as some 垂直竖井 s from several hundreds to over a thousand meters deep.峰丛地形有峰丛漏斗，峰丛干谷、峰丛洼地、峰丛谷地等类型。在中国，在大面积峰丛连片分布或可组成一流域的情况下，这一地形序列有自地表分水岭向外围依序分布的的规律。这一现象可解释为喀斯特作用的动力与能量自分水岭向外围不断增强的结果。如广西的七百弄（都安、大化）峰丛区，大石围天坑（乐业）峰丛区；木论（环江）峰丛区、贵州的茂兰（荔波）峰丛区，龙宫（安顺）峰丛区等。Fengcong landform consists of 峰丛漏斗，峰丛干谷、峰丛洼地、峰丛谷地, etc. In China, in big areas of fengcong karst distribution or 流域 s formed by fengcong karst, th
