1、How to Write an Abstract,Definition,An abstract is a brief, accurate, and comprehensive summary of the contents of the article without added interpretation or criticism. It allows readers to survey the contents of the article which follows quickly. In preparing the abstract, it is important to keep
2、the sentences short and simple by covering with just one topic each and excluding irrelevant information. Nevertheless, an abstract should be informative by presenting the quantitative and/or qualitative information contained in the document.,Types,Descriptive Informative Critical,Descriptive abstra
3、cts,A descriptive abstract indicates the type of information found in the work. It makes no judgments about the work, nor does it provide results or conclusions of the research. It does incorporate key words found in the text and may include the purpose, methods, and scope of the research. Essential
4、ly, the descriptive abstract describes the work being abstracted. Some people consider it an outline of the work, rather than a summary. Descriptive abstracts are usually very short100 words or less.,Informative abstracts,The majority of abstracts are informative. While they still do not critique or
5、 evaluate a work, they do more than describe it. A good informative abstract acts as a surrogate for the work itself. That is, the writer presents and explains all the main arguments and the important results and evidence in the complete article/paper/book. An informative abstract includes the infor
6、mation that can be found in a descriptive abstract (purpose, methods, scope) but also includes the results and conclusions of the research and the recommendations of the author.,When do people write abstracts?,when submitting articles to journals, especially online journals when applying for researc
7、h grants when writing a book proposal when completing the Ph.D. dissertation or M.A. thesis when writing a proposal for a conference paper when writing a proposal for a book chapter,Purpose 1 (Selection),Placed at the beginning of the article, it helps readers to know the brief content of the articl
8、e, thus saving them time to read through the whole paper. Readers normally have their first contact with an article by seeing just the abstract and deciding on the basis of the abstract whether to read the entire article. Thus, an abstract must be informative and readable; it should be well organize
9、d, concise, and self-contained.,Purpose 2 (Index),It is used by abstracting and information services to index and retrieve articles. Abstract journals can directly publish an abstract as it is, thus facilitating the publication of the article which has been published in the primary publication in Ab
10、stract Journal faster and more accurate.,Characteristics of a good abstract,1. Accurate: An abstract should reflect correctly the objectives and contents of the article. Do not include information that does not appear in the body of the article in the abstract. If the investigation extends or replic
11、ates previous research, it must be recorded in the abstract, with a brief citation of the author (initials and family name) and year. It is suggested that the author compare the abstract with the outline of the articles headings in order to verify the accuracy of the abstract.,2. Self-contained: Def
12、ine all unique terms, abbreviations (except units of measurement), and acronyms in the abstract. Include names of the authors (initials and family name) and dates of publication in citations of other publications (and give a full citation in the list of references). If the article does not have a se
13、parate Keywords section, embed them in the abstract as this will enhance the readers ability to find them; this will also help in indexing.,3. Concise and specific: Each sentence should be as informative as possible, especially the lead sentence. Make it brief. The total length of the abstract shoul
14、d not exceed 120 words, in one paragraph, if possible. Begin the abstract with the most important information but do not repeat the title. It may include the purpose of the investigation, the results and conclusions, or whatever is the most important to inform the readers.,4. Coherent and readable:
15、Write clearly. Here are some suggestions as to write clearly: Use verbs rather than the noun equivalents. Use the active rather than the passive voice, but without personal pronouns (I or we). Use the present tense to describe results without continuing applicability or conclusions drawn. Use the pa
16、st tense to describe specific variables manipulated or tests applied. Use the third rather than the first person.,Parts of an Abstract,Background information You may need to refer briefly to background to provide a context. Statement of the problem: What problem are you trying to solve? What is the
17、authors focus in this piece? Purpose of the research: What is the reason/purpose for doing this research? Approach (methods): What is (are) the main method(s) used for the research? what is the theoretical or subject scope of the paper? Results (findings): What did you learn /invent/ create? Conclus
18、ions (Implications): What are the larger implications of your findings, especially for the problem/gap identified in step 1? Key words,Hints, Describe the main findings concisely and summarize the conclusions. Include all the main information covered in the paper. Write with a non-specialist style i
19、n mind. Different points should be emphasized proportionally with that of the main body of the paper., Avoid unfamiliar terms, acronyms, abbreviations, or symbols; or define them if there is no choice. Use generic name, not trade names, for chemicals and drugs. Identify organisms by their scientific
20、 names. Do not include tables, diagrams, equations, or structural formulae in the abstract., For short articles, the abstract should be written as a single paragraph;. For long articles, split the abstract into two or more paragraphs if this is clearer for the readers. Use past tense for what was fo
21、und. Include as much as possible the key words from the text in the abstract., Avoid citing references unless the reference inspired the author to investigate further. Use numerals for all numbers, except those that begins a sentence. It is suggested that authors recast sentences that begin with a n
22、umber. Abbreviate liberally. However, the abbreviations that need to be explained in the text must also be explained on first use in the text not only in the abstract.,Sentences and vocabulary,Purpose,The purpose/aim/objective/goal (of present study is/was to The present study is /was designed/ devi
23、sed/ intended to This study was performed/ conducted/ carried out/undertaken to We aimed/sought to/attempted to 举例：The aim of this study was to determine the protective function of omeprazole on gastric mucosal injury,The purpose of this paper is to -An investigation was designed to -A brief present
24、ation of - is given -The concept of - is used to determine -,(1) It is found that -The author concludes that -The paper concludes -(2) It is seen from -that -,(1) It is suggested -It is recommended + that -The paper suggests -(2) The results suggest/show that -It can be recommended that -,The author
25、 tells about The writer + describes + N-phrase The paper explores looks at deals with refers to,Methods and approaches,介绍研究或试验过程, 常用词汇有: test, study, investigate, examine, experiment, discuss, consider, analyze, analysis 等。 说明研究或试验方法, 常用词汇有: measure, estimate, calculate 等。 介绍应用、用途, 常用词汇有: use, apply
26、, application 等.,Results,展示研究结果, 常用词汇有: show, result, present 等. 介绍结论, 常用词汇有: summary, introduce, conclude 等. Our results show that The results we obtained demonstrate that By means of informal mathematical arguments, simulations and a series of worked examples, we conclude that,Conclusions,1）结果提示：T
27、hese results suggest that 举例：These data confirm the presence of at least two major HCV genotypes in Nigeria. 2）结果支持或反对某种观点：These results support the idea that；These results fail to support the idea that 举例：These results do not support the idea that treatment to lower cholesterol concentration cause
28、mood disturbance. 3）表示观点的确定或不确定性：There is no evidence that；It is likely/unlikely 举例：There is no evidence that NIDDM produce any change in bone metabolism or 4）具有意义：Be of great (some/little/no) clinical significance in 举例：The detection of p53 gene is of great clinical significance in tumor diagnosis.
29、It sheds light on future studies in this field. 5）前瞻性说明：remain to be further studied；It remains to be proved that 举例：However, the relation of insulin resistance to hypertension remains to be further studied.,Sample 1,Many accounts of the micro-macro link use the philosophical notion of emergence to
30、argue that collective phenomena are collaboratively created by individuals, yet are not reducible to explanation in terms of individuals. However, emergence has also been invoked by methodological individualists; they accept the existence of emergent social properties, yet claim that such properties
31、 can be reduced to explanations in terms of individuals and their relationships. Thus, contemporary sociological uses of emergence are contradictory and unstable. I attempt to clarify this situation by developing an account of emergence that is based in contemporary philosophy of mind. I then use th
32、is philosophical account to evaluate these contradictory sociological theories. I conclude by identifying several unresolved issues facing theories of emergence in sociology,Example 1: Humanities abstract,Kenneth Tait Andrews, “Freedom is a constant struggle: The dynamics and consequences of the Mis
33、sissippi Civil Rights Movement, 1960-1984“ Ph.D. State University of New York at Stony Brook, 1997 DAI-A 59/02, p. 620, Aug 1998 This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through
34、the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform social structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. The time period studied includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the dese
35、gregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academies, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newsp
36、apers, and published reports. This dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to the leverage brought to be
37、ar by the civil rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi.,What the dissertat
38、ion does This dissertation examines the impacts of social movements through a multi-layered study of the Mississippi Civil Rights Movement from its peak in the early 1960s through the early 1980s. By examining this historically important case, I clarify the process by which movements transform socia
39、l structures and the constraints movements face when they try to do so. How the dissertation does it The time period studied in this dissertation includes the expansion of voting rights and gains in black political power, the desegregation of public schools and the emergence of white-flight academie
40、s, and the rise and fall of federal anti-poverty programs. I use two major research strategies: (1) a quantitative analysis of county-level data and (2) three case studies. What materials are used Data have been collected from archives, interviews, newspapers, and published reports. Conclusion This
41、dissertation challenges the argument that movements are inconsequential. Some view federal agencies, courts, political parties, or economic elites as the agents driving institutional change, but typically these groups acted in response to movement demands and the leverage brought to bear by the civi
42、l rights movement. The Mississippi movement attempted to forge independent structures for sustaining challenges to local inequities and injustices. By propelling change in an array of local institutions, movement infrastructures had an enduring legacy in Mississippi. Keywords social movementsCivil R
43、ights MovementMississippivoting rights desegregation,Example 2: Science abstract,Luis Lehner, “Gravitational radiation from black hole spacetimes“ Ph.D. University of Pittsburgh, 1998 DAI-B 59/06, p. 2797, Dec 1998 The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention
44、with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search for and analysis of detected signals. The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algo
45、rithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is co
46、nstructed and included in the evolution algorithm. This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radi
47、ation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability.,Why do t
48、his study The problem of detecting gravitational radiation is receiving considerable attention with the construction of new detectors in the United States, Europe, and Japan. The theoretical modeling of the wave forms that would be produced in particular systems will expedite the search and analysis
49、 of the detected signals. What the study does The characteristic formulation of GR is implemented to obtain an algorithm capable of evolving black holes in 3D asymptotically flat spacetimes. Using compactification techniques, future null infinity is included in the evolved region, which enables the
50、unambiguous calculation of the radiation produced by some compact source. A module to calculate the waveforms is constructed and included in the evolution algorithm. Results This code is shown to be second-order convergent and to handle highly non-linear spacetimes. In particular, we have shown that
51、 the code can handle spacetimes whose radiation is equivalent to a galaxy converting its whole mass into gravitational radiation in one second. We further use the characteristic formulation to treat the region close to the singularity in black hole spacetimes. The code carefully excises a region surrounding the singularity and accurately evolves generic black hole spacetimes with apparently unlimited stability. Keywords gravitational radiation (GR)spacetimesblack holes,
