1、梁曉帆教育部實驗室安全衛生研習,人因工程學 I,人因工程定義,人因工程是了解人的能力與限制，而應用於工具、機器、系統、工作方法和環境之設計，使人能在安全舒適及合乎人性的狀況下，發揮最大工作效率和使用效能，並提高生產力及使用者的滿意度。資料來源：中華民國人因工程學會 (Ergonomics Society of Taiwan)http:/www.est.org.tw/index.htm,背景介紹：人因工程背景介紹,二次大戰前： 1900年代初期，Gilbreth夫婦致力於動作研究和工場管理方面之研究。成果包括技術性工作的績效與疲勞之研究，和設計殘障者適用的工作站與裝備。圖片來源： http:/
2、1945年，美國軍方成立工程心理學實驗室。 1949年，Ergonomics Society在英國成立。 http:/www.ergonomics.org.uk/ 1957年，Human Factors and Ergonomics Society在美國成立。 http:/hfes.org/ 1959年，International Ergonomics Association成立。 http:/www.iea.cc/ 1993年，中華民國人因工程學會(Ergonomics Society of Taiwan)成立。 http:/www.est.org.tw/index.htm,個人意外發生程序
3、模型,暴露於危害狀態,危害的感知,危害的認知,決定避免,避免的能力,安全的行為,不安全的行為,機會,機會,意外,沒有意外,否,否,否,否,是,是,是,是,感應能力、感知能力、警醒狀況等,經驗、訓練、心智能力、記憶能力等,經驗、訓練、態度、動機、冒險程度、個性等,人體計測、生物力學、運動能力等,(Ramsey, 1985),危害的感知,人類接收外界訊息的管道:,危害的感知,視覺系統概述,視覺系統概述,刺激原：光線 能夠刺激眼睛的視網膜而產生視覺的輻射能 可見光譜 380 780 nanometer 光線的強度 光源 光強度(Luminous Intensity) ，單位：燭光(Candela,
4、cd) 光通量(Luminous Flux)，單位：流明(Lumen, lm) 放射至物體表面 照度(Illumination) ，單位：呎燭光(Footcandle, fc lm/ft2) 照度(Illuminance) ，單位：勒克斯(Lux, lx lm/m2) 反射 亮度(Luminance) ，單位：呎朗伯(Footlambert, fL lm/ft2)；cd/m2 反射比(Reflectance),視覺系統概述,CIE 色彩圖 根據三原色(RGB)繪製人類所能感受的所有顏色 Munsell 色錐 以色調、飽和度與明度來描述顏色,視覺系統概述,接收系統：眼睛與視覺神經 物體反射的光線
5、 角膜(Cornea) 水樣液(Aqueous Humor) 瞳孔(Pupil) 水晶體(Lens) 折射 玻璃液(Vitreous Humor) 網膜(Retina) 網膜(Retina) 錐狀細胞(Cone) 分佈：集中在中央小窩(Fovea)附近 特性：視銳度高、能辨色彩，但需在光線充足的情況下作用 桿狀細胞(Rod) 分佈：網膜的四周 特性：視銳度低、只能辨別黑白，但可在光線不足的情況下作用,視覺系統概述,物體大小 視角 物體細節 視銳度(Visual Acuity) 眼睛能夠分辨物體細節的能力 = 1/視角 衡量方法：最小可判離敏銳度(Minimum Separable Acuity
6、) 物體對比 對比敏感度(Contrast Sensitivity) 景深感知 經驗法則,Light: Wavelength,Light: Intensity,Brightness: Subjective experience of visual intensity,CIE color space,Based on human color perception RGB (red, green, blue)All colors that can be humanly perceived can be plotted within this space.The area within the tr
7、iangle represents the colors that can be displayed by a typical television monitor.The “+“ indicates the “white point“ of the monitor. x = X / (X+Y+Z) y = Y / (X+Y+Z),Munsells color dimensions,Eye: The Retina,Eye: Rods and Cones,Eye: Rods and Cones,Object size: Visual angle,For visual angles is less
8、 than 10 degrees: VA: Visual Angle H: Height of the object D: Distance (1 minute of arc: 1/60 of 1 degree),Object detail: Visual acuity,Visual acuity =Measurements Minimum separable acuity General measurement of smallest detail detectable Vernier acuity Are lines aligned? Landolt ring Is the gap in
9、a ring detectable? Snellen acuity Measurement of detail revolved at 20 ft. (6 m.) 20/20,Contrast sensitivity,Modulation contrast (C) Lmax: The maximum luminance Lmin : The minimum luminanceThreshold contrast (CM) The minimum amount of contrast that can just be detectedContrast Sensitivity (CS) The r
10、eciprocal of the threshold contrast,Influences on Contrast Sensitivity,Spatial frequency (cycles/degree) Most sensitive around 2-4 cycles/degree Contrast Black print on gray The level of illumination of the stimulus Reading map in poor light Eye itself Age Dynamic environment Motion,Depth perception
11、: Top-down processing,Linear perspective Converging of parallel lines (the road) Relative size Two trucks Interposition Two buildings Light and shading Location & 3-D Textural gradients The cone field Relative motion Distant object Smaller movement,危害的感知,聽覺系統與其他感覺系統概述,聽覺系統與其他感覺系統概述,刺激原：聲音 能夠刺激耳朵而產生聽
12、覺的振動波 頻率 每秒鐘壓力變化的週期次數，單位：赫(Hertz, Hz) 強度 聲壓水準(Sound Pressure Level, SPL) SPL(dB) = 20 log (P1/P2) P1 and P2: Pressures 複合音 位置,聽覺系統與其他感覺系統概述,接收系統：耳朵 外耳、中耳以及內耳 響度(Loudness) 強度 0 db = A pure tone of 1,000 Hz at 20 micro Newtons/m2 音調(Pitch) 頻率 20 20000 Hz 音色(Timbre) 複合音 感知位置 位置,Ear,Loudness and pitch,P
13、sychophysical scaling Loudness (Sone) 1 sone = the loudness of a 40 db tone of 1000 Hz Loudness approximately doubles with each 10 db increase in sound intensity,Loudness and pitch (Cont.),Frequency influence Range: 20 to 20000 Hz Most sensitive to sounds of around 4000 Hz Equal loudness contours (p
14、hon) 1 phon = 1 db of loudness of a 1000 Hz tone 40 phons = 1 sone 50 phons = 2 sones 60 phones = 4 sones 30 phones = 0.5 sones,Masking,Principles for design The minimum intensity difference necessary to ensure that a sound can be heard is around 15 db above the mask. Sounds tend to be masked most b
15、y sounds in a critical frequency band surrounding the sound that is masked. Low-pitch sounds mask high-pitch sounds more than the converse.,聽覺系統與其他感覺系統概述,觸覺/膚覺 鍵盤、手套、盲人點字、虛擬實境等 肢體位置的感覺(Proprioception)與肢體移動的感覺(Kinesthesis) 搖桿、滑鼠、方向盤等 前庭(平衡)感覺(Vestibular sense) 空間迷向(Spatial disorientation) 動暈症(Motion
16、sickness),感知的一般原理,由上而下(Top-down)與由下而上(Bottom-up)程序 Top-down What should be there 經驗、知識、預期心理 Bottom-up What is there 感應 訊號偵檢理論(Signal Detection Theory, SDT) 敏感度 Bottom-up 操作者行為 Top-down,感知的一般原理,辨別(Discrimination) 相似程度絕對判斷(Absolute Judgment) Vs. 相對判斷(Relative Judgment),Bottom-up vs. Top-down Processin
17、g,Experience,Stimulus World,Knowledge (expectanciesand desires),The senses,Perception,Bottom-up Processing,Top-down Processing,What is there,What should be there,Detection,Signal Detection Theory (SDT) Discriminate signals from noise,Discrimination,Judgment of differences between two sources of info
18、rmation that are present,Absolute judgment,Judgment of the absolute value of a variable signaled by a coded stimulus,危害的認知與避免的決定,人類之認知與決策概述,危害的認知與避免的決定,資訊程序模型(Information Processing Model) 接收資訊、處理資訊與回應資訊 工作記憶(Working Memory) 容量(Capacity)：7 2 chunks 時間(Time)：半衰期(Half life) 3 chunks: 7 seconds 1 chunk
19、: 70 seconds 注意力(Attention) 相似度(Similarity) b and d,危害的認知與避免的決定,資訊程序模型(Information Processing Model) 長期記憶(Long-term Memory) 物件記憶強度 頻率(Frequency)與新近度(Recency) 物件記憶聯結(Association) 物件之間相互的聯結 遺忘：指數曲線 低頻率(Frequency)與新近度(Recency) 低聯結(Association) 干擾的聯結(Interfering Associations) 資訊的組織(Organization of Infor
20、mation) 語意網路(Semantic Networks) 基模(Schemas) 心智模式(Mental Model),危害的認知與避免的決定,決策模型(Decision Making Model) 線索之接收與整合(Cue reception and integration) Attention to limited number of cues Cue primacy Inattention to later cues Cue salience Overweighting of unreliable cues 假設之產生(Hypothesis generation) A limite
21、d number of hypotheses are generated Availability heuristic Representativeness heuristic Overconfidence,危害的認知與避免的決定,決策模型(Decision Making Model) 假設之評估與選擇(Hypothesis evaluation and selection) Cognitive fixation Confirmational bias 行動之產生與選擇(Generating and selecting actions) Retrieve a small number of a
22、ctions Availability heuristic for action Availability of possible outcomes,危害的認知與避免的決定,決策模型(Decision Making Model) 風險評估 低估 vs. 高估 Known-Unknown Understood-Not understood Common-Uncommon Mundane-Dramatic Little media coverage-Much media coverage Noncontrovertial-Controvertial Me in control-You in con
23、trol Voluntary-Nonvoluntary Fun risks-Work risks Few injuries/events-Many injuries/events Sensory perception-Unable to sense Benign experience-Hurtful experience (Buys, 1982),Information processing model,Model Human Processor (Card, Moran and Newell, 1983),Processors Perceptual Processor (Cycle time
24、: 10050200 msec.) Cognitive Processor (Cycle time: 7025170 msec.) Motor Processor (Cycle time: 7030100 msec.) Simple reaction: Cycle time: 240105470 msec. Memories Visual Image Store (Decay time: 200701000 msec.; Capacity: 17717 letters) Auditory Image Store (Decay time: 15009003500 msec.; Capacity:
25、 54.46.2 letters) Working Memory (Decay time: without attention: 75226 msec., 1 chunk: 7373226 msec., 3 chunks: 7534 msec.; Capacity: 32.54.1 chunks, 759 chunks) Long-Term Memory (Decay time: ; Capacity: ) Chunking: 於認知過程中,個人組織訊息成有意義之單位 (Miller, 1956): 72 (59) chunks Example: TRE ECA TDOG vs. TREE C
26、AT DOG,Long-term memory: Semantic networks,Long-term memory: Schemas,Decision making model,Information-processing framework Cue reception and integration Hypothesis generation Hypothesis evaluation and selection Generating and selecting actions,避免的能力,人體計測與生物力學概述,避免的能力,人體的差異 年齡、性別、種族、職業、世代、暫時的每日變化等 人
27、體計測資料庫 軍方與民間 台灣地區勞工人體計測資料庫 本資料庫所量測到的人體計測資料包含為動態尺寸42項以及靜態尺寸266項兩大類，將所有的尺寸彙總後共有308項。目前樣本數1200筆，樣本背景以勞工為主。 靜態資料庫 量測人體靜止時之維度(如身高、肩寬等) 動態資料庫 量測人體工作時之維度(如站立時右手可及之區域等) 工作站設計,Anthropometric data,Measurement devices and methods Martins anthropometric instruments Morant technique (grid system) Photographic me
28、thods Digital human modeling,General principles for work-space design (Cont.),Visibility and normal line of sight Normal line of sight The preferred direction of gaze when the eyes are at a resting condition About 10 to 15 below the horizontal plane Visual display should be placed within 15 in radiu
29、s around the normal line of sight,General principles for work-space design (Cont.),Component arrangement Frequency of use principle Importance principle Sequence of use principle Consistency principle Control-display compatibility principle of co-location Clutter-avoidance principle Functional-group
30、ing principle,Design of standing and seated work areas,Choice between standing and seated work areas Analysis of job components Work surface height General rules of thumb Standing working heights at 5 to 10 cm below elbow level Seated working heights at elbow level Work surface depth Normal work are
31、a The horizontal area covered by a sweep of the forearm without extending the upper arm Maximum work area The horizontal area covered by a sweep of the arm by extending the arm from the shoulder Work surface inclination Slightly slanted surfaces (about 15) should be used for reading,避免的能力,骨骼肌肉系統 連結組
32、織 關節 生物力學模型 牛頓力學三定律 下背抬舉模型 NIOSH抬舉準則 座椅設計,The musculoskeletal system,Functions To support and protect the body and body parts To maintain posture and produce body movement To generate heat and maintain body temperature Bones 206 bones Protect internal organs (e.g., skull and the rib cage) Support bo
33、dy movement (e.g., long bones of the upper and lower extremities),The musculoskeletal system (Cont.),Connective tissues Tendons (肌腱) Transmit the forces exerted by the muscles to the attached bones Ligaments (韌帶) Connect the articular extremities of bones and help stabilize the articulations of bone
34、s at joints Cartilage (軟骨) A translucent elastic tissue Fascia (筋膜) Covers body structures and separates them from each other,The musculoskeletal system (Cont.),Joints Synovial joints (滑液關節) No tissue exists between the highly lubricated joint surfaces Fibrous joints (纖維關節) Such as those connecting
35、the bones of the skull through fibrous tissues Cartilaginous joints (軟骨關節) Such as those bridging vertebral bones and intervertebral discs,The musculoskeletal system (Cont.),Types of movement allowed No-mobility joints Do not support movement (e.g., the seams in the skull of an adult) Hinge joints P
36、ermit motion in only one plane (e.g., elbow) Pivot joints Allow 2 degrees of freedom in movement (e.g., wrist) Ball-and-socket joints Allow 3 degrees of freedom in movement (e.g., the hip and shoulder),Biomechanical models,3 Newtons laws Single-segment planar (2-D) static model W = mg W: Weight of o
37、bject (N) m: the mass of object (kg) g: the gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2) Won-each-hand = (20 kg 9.8 m/s2)/2 = 98 N (forces at the elbow) = 0 -16N -98N + Relbow = 0; Relbow = 114N (moments at the elbow) = 0 -16N(0.18m) -98N(0.36m) + Melbow = 0; Melbow = 38,16 N-m,Low-back problems,Low-back b
38、iomechanics of lifting (moments at the L5/S1 disc) = 0 Fback-muscle 5cm = Wload h + Wtorso b (forces at the L5/S1 disc) = 0 Fcompression = (Wload + Wtorso) Cos + Fback-muscle,NIOSH lifting guide,Biomechanics Criterion for the compressive force at the L5/S1 disc = 3.4kN Physiology The limit of maximu
39、m energy expenditure for a lifting = 2.2 to 4.7 kcal/min Psychophysics The maximum-acceptable-weight-of-lift = the acceptable lifting capacity of about 99% of male workers and 75% of female workers (about 90% of a 50-50 mixed-sex working population),NIOSH lifting guide (Cont.),RWL = LC HM VM DM AM F
40、M CM RWL = Recommended weight limit LC = load constant (23kg) HM = horizontal multiplier (25/H) H 25cm, HM = 1; H 63cm, HM = 0 VM = vertical multiplier (1-0.003|V-75|) V 175cm, VM = 0; 75cm = Knuckle height for average person (165 cm) DM = distance multiplier (0.82+4.5/D) D 25cm, DM = 1; D 175cm, DM
41、 = 0 AM = asymmetric multiplier (1-0.0032A) A 135, AM = 0 FM = frequency multiplier (Table 11.2) CM = coupling multiplier (Table 11.3) LI (Lifting Index) = Load Weight/RWL LI 1: likely to pose an increased risk for some workers LI 3: many or most workers are at high risk of developing low-back pain
42、and injuryhttp:/www.cdc.gov/niosh/94-110.html,NIOSH lifting guide (Cont.),An example H = 16” V = 44” D = 18” A = 80 F = 3 lifts/min C: Good coupling Job duration: 8 hrs/day Weight lifted = 15 lbs RWL = 510.6250.8950.920.7440.551.0 = 10.74 (lbs) LI = 15/10.74 = 1.40,NIOSH lifting guide (Cont.),Manual
43、 material handling 1991 NIOSH lifting equation Job analysis tool Seven major parameters in designing workplaces and devices for material handling Material handling devices (MHDs),Material handling devices (Cont.),NIOSH lifting guide (Cont.),Seated work and chair design Lordosis (前彎) vs. kyphosis (後彎
44、 ) Chair design Backrest: 110 - 120 Lumbar support Arm rests Tiltable and cushioned seat surface Adjusted seat height Others Adequate leg space Regular breaks,Upper-extremity cumulative trauma disorders,Terms Cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs, 累積性傷害) Repetitive Strain Injuries (RSIs) Common forms of
45、 CTD Tendon-related CTD Tendonitis (肌腱炎) Tenosynovitis (腱鞘炎) Neuritis (神經炎) Nerve damage Ischemia (缺血) Tissue anemia Bursitis (滑液囊炎) Inflammation of a bursa,Upper-extremity CTDs (Cont.),Fingers Hand and wrist Elbow Shoulder,梁曉帆教育部實驗室安全衛生研習,人因工程學 II,個人意外發生程序模型,暴露於危害狀態,危害的感知,危害的認知,決定避免,避免的能力,安全的行為,不安全
46、的行為,機會,機會,意外,沒有意外,否,否,否,否,是,是,是,是,感應能力、感知能力、警醒狀況等,經驗、訓練、心智能力、記憶能力等,經驗、訓練、態度、動機、冒險程度、個性等,人體計測、生物力學、運動能力等,(Ramsey, 1985),定義,危害(Hazard) 有可能造成災害(受傷或死亡)的狀態 風險(Risk) 造成災害(受傷或死亡)的機率或可能性 危險(Danger) 危害 風險,91年全產業職業災害統計：災害類型,資料來源：勞工安全衛生研究所(http:/www.iosh.gov.tw/index.html),91年全產業職業災害統計：受傷部位,資料來源：勞工安全衛生研究所(http
47、:/www.iosh.gov.tw/index.html),相關單位,勞工安全衛生研究所 民國81年8月勞工安全衛生研究所成立。勞工安全衛生研究所為隸屬行政院勞工委員會之研究機構，其主要任務為運用科學技術，調查、分析工作環境中的各種危害因子，並進而提出改善對策。 中華民國人因工程學會 緣起： 人因工程在國內有系統的發展，大約是從民國七十三年，國科會邀請國內人因工程小組，討論它的發展方向開始的，經過好幾次會議的熱烈討論，才確定了人因工程的中文名稱和它的發展方向（之前的中文譯名不一，如人體工學、人類工程學、人類因素學等），從那時起，人因工程就是國科會工程處在工業工程方面的一個發展重點；而中華民人因
48、工程學會是民國八十一年七月間，由國內各大教授及研究機構相關人員提議成立，以整合國內人因工程人力資源，共同合作提升國內人因工程學術研究及相關技術水準，並促進國際相關研究之交流。提議之後，獲得學術界、教育界、及產業界人士的支持，經七個月的籌備，於八十二年二月十四日在新竹國立清華大學成立，共有一百六十餘位會員參加成立大會。,相關單位,中華民國人因工程學會 發展： 在過去的幾年期間，國內人因工程的專業人才漸漸增多，人因工程的研究推廣每年都有令人滿意成果與成長，原來主要由國科會支持的研究推廣工作，近年來也陸續擴展到其他相關政府機構，如：勞委會、原委會、交通部、經濟部等，民間產業在這方面的需求也日漸增多，
49、國科會在工程處中正式成立了工業工程學門，人因工程也被列為五個子學門之一，可以顯示出它的重要性與潛力，另外在國科會生物處的範圍內，在醫學工程在生物力學、殘障輔助設施、復健等方面，也需要人因工程的配合支持。,安全與意外防治,危害因子(Hazard factors)危害確認方法(Hazard identification methods)危害控制方法(Hazard control methods),危害因子,任務相關項目 人員 年齡、能力、經驗、用藥與酒精、性別、壓力、警醒與疲勞、動機、易錯性等 工作 警醒與疲勞、物理工作負荷、心理工作負荷、休息週期、輪班、步調、程序等 設備與工具 控制與顯示、電危害、機械危害、熱危害、壓力危害、有毒物質、爆裂危害、組件失效等,
