1、Chapter 6,THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY,- The Age of Science and Government,Chapter 6 The Seventeenth Centure,Introduction Part 1 Historical background religion, trade, governance Part 2 New direction in thought Part 3 Science Part 4 The arts and literature Conclusion,Introduction,The 17th century was the
2、 century which lasted from 1601 to 1700. The principle question that arose on the 17th centure was to do with authority. In politicsIt was about who had the right to authority and in what ways it should be used. In philosopyIt was a question of where authority lies, within the individual or outside
3、of the individual.,Introduction,In scienceIt was to do with establishing the authority of evidence through the use of science method. In religionIt was about whether authority lies within the individual or with the church.,Part 1 Historical background religion, trade, governance,Three things were cr
4、ucial in the development of 17th century European societies: The problem of religious differences The growth of a trading middle class The theories and practice of governance,Religion,Like other religious reformers of the time, Huguenots胡格诺教徒felt that the Catholic Church needed radical cleansing of
5、its impurities, and that the Pope ruled the Church as if it was a worldly kingdom. The Catholic Church in France opposed the Huguenots, and there were incidents of attacks on Huguenot preachers and congregants聚会者 as they attempted to meet for worship. The height of this persecution迫害 was the St. Bar
6、tholomews Day massacre圣巴多罗谬惨案,(In French),St. Bartholomews Day massacre 圣巴多罗谬惨案,.,One morning at the gates of the Louvre,Millais painting, A Huguenot on St. Bartholomews day,King Henry IV,In 1598, King Henry IV signed the Edit of Nantes南特诏书 , which made the end of the religious wars, and gave the Hu
7、guenots the right to worship in their own way.,Thirty Years War (in Germany),The Thirty Years War (16181648) was one of the most destructive conflicts in European history. The war was fought primarily in Germany and at various points involved most of the countries of Europe. Initially the war was fo
8、ught largely as a religious conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire.,Thirty Years War (in Germany),Gradually, the war developed into a more general conflict involving most of the European powers. A major impact of the Thirty Years War was the extensive destruction of enti
9、re regions.,Religion (in England),Based on conflicting political, religious and social positions, there was an English Civil War between the supporters of Parliament and those of king Charles I. The Parliamentarians were victorious, Charles I was executed and the kingdom replaced with the Commonweal
10、th 联邦. Leader of the Parliament forces, Oliver Cromwell declared himself Lord Protector in 1653.,Religion (in England),By the time of Cromwells death, England had largely grown weary厌烦 of Puritan清教徒的 rule, so Charles II was invited to return as monarch君主 in 1660 with the Restoration.,The English Res
11、toration restored the monarchy under King Charles II and peace after the English Civil War.,Trade and the middle class,The numerous wars did not prevent European states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, from Africa to Asia and the newly discovered Americas. This expansion hel
12、ped the economy of the countries owning them. Trade flourished, because of the minor stability of the empires.,Merchants in Venice,Elizabeth I Reigned 1558 1603 (44 years, 127 days),Elizabeths reign is known as the Elizabethan era, famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, and for the s
13、eafaring航海事业的prowess威力of English adventurers. Her 44 years on the throne provided welcome stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity.,Trade,In the 16th century, Holland was the centre of free trade, imposing no exchange controls, and advocating the free movement of goods
14、. Trade in the East Indies was dominated by Portugal in the 16th century, the Netherlands in the 17th century, and the British in the 18th century. The Spanish Empire developed regular trade links across both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.,Trade,The growth of trade and increasing communication
15、 raised the question of international law. Hugo Grotius格劳修斯 (Dutch, 1583 1645) wrote On the Law of War and Peace论战争与和平法 (1625). He laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law.,Mercantilism 商业本位/重商主义,Mercantilism is an economic theory, considered to be a form of economic national
16、ism经济国家主义, that holds that the prosperity of a nation is dependent upon its supply of capital, and that the global volume of international trade is “unchangeable“. Economic assets 资产 are held by the state, which is best increased through a positive balance of trade贸易的顺差with other nations.,Mercantili
17、sm,Mercantilism suggests that the ruling government should advance these goals by playing a protectionist贸易保护的role in the economy by encouraging exports and discouraging imports, notably through the use of tariffs关税 and subsidies补贴. The theory dominated Western European economic policies from the 16
18、th to the late-18th century.,King, God and taxation,Great chain of being 存在之链Great chain of being is a classical Christian and Western medieval concept detailing a strict, hierarchical structure层次结构of all matter and life, believed to have been decreed颁布 by God.,Great chain of being,The chain starts
19、from God and progresses downward to angels, demons魔鬼 (fallen /renegade变节的 angels), stars, moon, kings, princes, nobles, men, wild animals, domesticated驯养的 animals, trees, other plants, precious stones, precious metals, and other minerals.,the Great Chain of Being,The Chain of Being is composed of a
20、great number of hierarchical links, from the most basic and foundational elements up through the very highest perfection, in other words, God.,King, God and taxation,As the spirit of questioning and a more secular长期的outlook arose in the Renaissance, the divine right of kings became a topic of debate
21、 which lasted from the 1550s until far into the 18th century. Pressures for change built up that came from 3 main sources: legal, social and financial.,King, God and taxation,Legal challengeHuguenots(胡格诺教徒) challenged the theory of absolute rule, maintaining that when kings were unjust they could be
22、 resisted. Social challengeKings needed to balance their power with that of the nobles. Financial challengeTaxation gradually became the central issue in the distribution of power.,Absolutism in France,Absolutism 专制主义Absolutism or The Age of Absolutism (1610 1789) is a term used to describe a form o
23、f monarchical power that is unrestrained by all other institutions, such as churches, legislatures. Absolutism is typically used in conjunction with some European monarchs during the transition from feudalism to capitalism.,Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France are often described as absolute rulers.,L
24、ouis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu,Louis XIII (1601 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643. Cardinal Richelieu黎塞留枢机主教played a major role in Louis XIIIs administration from 1624.,Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu,As a result of Richelieus work, Louis XIII became one of the first examples of an abso
25、lute monarch. Under Louis and Richelieu, the crown successfully intervened 调停in the Thirty Years War against the Habsburgs哈普斯堡皇室, managed to keep the French nobility in line,Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu,and retracted取消the political and military privileges granted to the Huguenots by Henry IV (w
26、hile maintaining their religious freedoms). In addition, Louis had the port of Le Havre勒阿弗尔(法国港市) modernized, and he built a powerful navy.,Louis XIII, his wife Anne, and Cardinal Richelieu all became central figures in Alexandre Dumass大仲马 novel, The Three Musketeers三个火枪手.The book describes Louis as
27、 a man willing to have Richelieu as a powerful advisor but aware of his scheming诡计多端; he is depicted as a bored and sour man, dwarfed by Richelieus intellect.,Louis XIV,Louis XIV (1638 1715), known as the Sun King was King of France. His reign, from 1643 to his death in 1715, began at the age of fou
28、r and lasted seventy-two years, three months, and eighteen days, and is the longest documented reign of any European monarch.,Louis XIV,For much of Louiss reign, France stood as the leading European power, engaging in three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the
29、 War of the Spanish Succession. He encouraged and benefited from the work of prominent political, military and cultural figures.,“I depart, but the State shall always remain.“,People used a standard vocabulary, portraying him as august, conquering, enlightened, generous, god-given, heroic, illustrio
30、us, immortal, invincible, just, magnanimous, pious, triumphant and wise. In a word, he was “great”.,The English Civil War,The English Civil War (16411651) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations诡计between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The first (164246) and second (164849) civil
31、wars were the supporters of King Charles I against the supporters of the Long Parliament, while the third war (164951) was between the supporters of King Charles II and the supporters of the Rump Parliament. The Civil War ended with the Parliamentary victory on 1651.,Charles I,Charles I (1600 1649)
32、was King of England, King of Scotland and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Charles engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England.,Charles I,Charles last years were marked by the English Civil War, in which he fought the forces of the English and Scottish Parli
33、aments, which challenged the kings attempts to overrule and negate Parliamentary authority, while simultaneously using his position as head of the English Church to pursue religious policies which generated the antipathy反感 of reformed groups such as the Puritans.,Charles I,Charles was defeated in th
34、e First Civil War (164245), after which Parliament expected him to accept its demands for a constitutional宪法的monarchy. He instead remained defiant by attempting to forge an alliance with Scotland and escaping to the Isle of Wight 怀特岛(英国) . This provoked the Second Civil War (164849) and a second def
35、eat for Charles, who was subsequently captured, convicted, and executed for high treason 叛国罪.,Charles I,The monarchy was then abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth联邦 of England was declared. Charles son, Charles II, became king after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. In that same y
36、ear, Charles I was canonized封为圣徒 as “St. Charles Stuart“ by the Church of England.,Oliver Cromwell 克伦威尔,Oliver Cromwell (1599 1658) was an English military and political leader best known for his involvement in making England into a republican Commonwealth and for his later role as Lord Protector of
37、 England, Scotland, and Ireland.,Charles II,Charles was popularly known as the Merrie Monarch, in reference to both the liveliness and hedonism 快乐主义of his court and the general relief at the return to normality after over a decade of rule by Oliver Cromwell and the Puritans. Charless wife born no ch
38、ildren, but Charles acknowledged at least 12 illegitimate children by various mistresses.,Glorious Revolution,The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians with an invading army led by the Dutch stadt
39、holder总督 William III who, as a result, ascended the English throne as William III of England.,Glorious Revolution,The Glorious Revolution can be argued that Jamess overthrow began modern English parliamentary democracy: never since has the monarch held absolute power, and the Bill of Rights has beco
40、me one of the most important documents in the political history of Britain.,Equestrian portrait of William III,The Bill of Rights of 1689 权利法案,The Bill of Rights is often called the English Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights was passed by Parliament in December 1689. See P. 219,Part 2 New directions
41、 in thought,The 17th century philosophy was significant because for the first time since the ancient world, philosophy was clearly separated from the theology, and knowledge began to be considered the right of all people.,Ren Descartes (1595 1650) 勒奈笛卡尔,French philosopher, mathematician, physicist.
42、He has been dubbed the “Father of Modern Philosophy“, and much of subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which continue to be studied closely to this day.,Descartes is often regarded as the first thinker to provide a philosophical framework for the natural sciences. Descartes a
43、rrives at only a single principle: thought exists. Thought cannot be separated from me. He is best known for the philosophical statement “I think, therefore I am; or I am thinking, therefore I exist), found in part IV of Discourse on the Method 方法论 .,Ren Descartes (1595 1650) 勒奈笛卡尔,Thomas Hobbes (15
44、88 1679) 托马斯霍布斯,Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher, remembered today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan利维坦 established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory社会契约论.,Leviathan 利维坦,Leviathan is a book writt
45、en by Thomas Hobbes which was published in 1651. It is titled after the biblical Leviathan. The book concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory社会契约论. In the book, Thomas Hobbes argues for
46、 a social contract and rule by an absolute sovereign 君主.,Baruch Spinoza (1634 1677) 斯宾诺莎,Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin.Today, he is considered one of the great rationalists 唯理论者 of 17th-century philosophy, laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment. 自由的人绝少想到死亡；他的智慧，不是死的
47、默念，而是生的沉思。,John Locke (1632 1704) 约翰洛克,English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness.,See P. 222 - 223,Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 1716) 弗里德威廉莱布尼茨,He occupies a gra
48、nd place in both the history of philosophy and the history of mathematics. He invented calculus 微积分independently of Newton. He also invented the binary system 二进制, the foundation of the modern computer system.,Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 1716) 弗里德威廉莱布尼茨,In philosophy, he is mostly remembered for
49、 optimism, e.g., his conclusion that our universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one God could have made. He was, along with Ren Descartes and Baruch Spinoza, one of the three great 17th-century rationalists and his work anticipates modern logic and analysis, but his philosophy also lo
50、oks back to the scholastic 经院哲学家的tradition, in which logic was an important part.,Part 3 Science Johannes Kepler (1571 1630) 约翰尼斯开普勒,German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer, and key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution. He is best known for his laws of planetary motion. His laws provided the foundations for Newtons theory of universal gravitation.,
