1、2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Chapter Two Word Structure and Word Formation,Components of Word Structure Types of Morphemes Word Formation,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Components of Word Structure,Morpheme: Morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words” (Crystal, 1985). Words are made of morph
2、emes. Word types: One-morpheme words: log, clerk, soldier, etc. Tow-morpheme words: lovely, inexpensive, kindness, etc. Three-morpheme words: unacceptable, unskillful, etc. More-morpheme words: unskillfully, unimportantly, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Types of Morphemes,Content morphemes are the basis o
3、f words meanings. Sometimes they can be used independently. For example, “teach” in “teacher” and “hope” in “hopeful” carry the basic meanings of the two words and they can also be used independently. In this case, some scholars call them free morphemes, which imply that they can exist freely and fu
4、nction as the basic units of a sentence. They are also considered roots.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Types of Morphemes,Grammatical morphemes are the additional meanings or grammatical meanings and are attached to content morphemes, and then form words. In this case, some scholars call them bound morphemes.
5、 For example, “un-” in “unkind” and “-full” in “hopeful” are grammatical morphemes and cannot be used independently. In fact, they are affixes. Some grammatical morphemes share lexical meanings, such as un-, in-,-ful, dis-, -able, im-, etc. Some grammatical morphemes do not share any lexical meaning
6、s and only indicate various grammatical forms, such as s, -ly, -ize, -ion, -ness, -ed, -ing, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Types of Morphemes,English stems can be categorized into two types: Derived stems can be divided into several morphemes which are composed of one or two content morphemes and one or
7、two grammatical morphemes. For example, in “chopper”, “chop-” is a content morpheme; “-er” is a grammatical morpheme while and in “doorman” both “door-” and “man” are content morphemes. And Stephen Ullmann calls them transparent words（显性词）. Non-derived stems refer to independent content morphemes th
8、at can not be further analyzed. For example, “axe, glove, book, etc.” are all non-derived stems. And Stephen Ullmann calls them opaque words (隐性词).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Types of Morphemes,Morpheme is a linguistic abstraction and a concept. It is realized in a specific linguistic forms, i.e. morphs（形素
9、）. “They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of meaning.” (Bolinger and Sears, 1981) Morphemes are put in braces（大括号）. Take “big” for example. Its morpheme is big, its sound form is big and its writing form is “big”. In many cases, several forms that are called allomorphs represent one morpheme. Tak
10、e the plural morpheme sfor example. It can be represented by the three morphemic forms s, z and iz. The three morphemic forms are considered the allomorphs of s, as in cats, dogs, lies and buses.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,Prevue: The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly
11、 on word formation. There is a variety of means being at work now. The most productive are affixation, compounding and conversion. According to Pyles and Algeo (1982), words produced through affixation constitute 30% to 40% of the total number of new words; compounding yields 28% to 30% of all the n
12、ew words; conversion brings 26% of the new vocabulary into modern English. The rest of the new words come from shortening including clipping and acronymy, numbering 8% to 10%, together with 1% to 5% of words born out of blending and other means.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,Affixation is gener
13、ally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases. This process is also called derivation, by which new words are derived from old or base forms. The words created in this way are called derivatives. According to the positions affixes occupy in words, aff
14、ixation falls into two subcategories: prefixation (prefix) and suffixation (suffix).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,1. Prefixation: Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases. Prefixes do not change the word class of the base but only modify its meaning. 1) Negative pr
15、efixes a-: meaning “not, without, opposite to” as in apolitical, asexual, asocial, etc. dis-: meaning “not, the converse of” as in disobey, discredit, disloyal, disorder, etc. in- (il-, ir-, im-): same meaning as dis- as in inaudible, illiterate, improbable, etc. non-: meaning “not, not having the q
16、ualities or characteristics” as in nonsmoker, etc. un-: the same meaning as dis- as in unwillingly, unbuilt, undemocratic, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,2) Reversative or private prefixes (逆反前缀) de-: meaning “reversing the action, depriving of”, with nouns as in decentralize, demystify, de
17、humanize, etc. dis-: meaning “reversing the action”, with verbs as in disallow, dispossess, etc. un-: the meaning as de- with verbs as in unbug, unlock, unwrap; but meaning “depriving of, releasing from” in limited use with nouns to make verbs as in unseat, unhorse, unmask, etc. 3) Pejorative prefix
18、es (贬义前缀),2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,mal-: meaning “badly, bad” added to verbs, participles, adjectives, and abstract nouns, as in maltreat, malformed, malodorous, malpractice, etc. mis-: meaning “wrongly, astray”, added to verbs, participles and abstract nouns, as in misinterpret, mistrust,
19、 misleading, etc. pseudo-: meaning “false, imitation”, added to nouns, adjectives, as in pseudo-scientific, pseudo-classicism, pseudo-democratic, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,4) Prefixes of degree or size arch-: meaning “supreme, most”, with human nouns, as in archbishop, archduke, arch-e
20、nemy, arch-capitalist, etc. co-: meaning “jointly, on equal footing”, used with verbs and nouns, e.g. cohabit, co-direct, co-star, etc. extra-: meaning “very”, productive with adjectives, e.g. extra-large, extra-strong, extra-bright, etc. hyper-: meaning “extreme”, productive with adjectives, someti
21、mes with pejorative (贬义词), e.g. hyper-cautious, hyperactive, hyper-creative, etc. macro-: meaning “large”, forming technical terms as in macroeconomics, macrostructure, macrocosm, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,micro-: meaning “very small”, the opposite of “macro-“, forming technical terms
22、as in microcomputer, microsurgery, microfilm, etc. mini-: meaning “little”, used with nouns as in mini-bus, mini-camera, mini-market, mini-tour, etc. out-: meaning “surpassing”, with verbs, nouns and adjectives to form new transitive verbs as in outswim, outlive, outwit, outclass, etc. over-: meanin
23、g “excessive”, added to adjectives, verbs and nouns, as in over-anxious, over-protective, over-react, overestimate, etc. sub-: meaning “secondary, less important”, productive in this sense with nouns to form new nouns, e.g. sub-system, sub-heading, sub-contractor, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Forma
24、tion,super-: meaning “more than, beyond, very special”, productive with adjectives and nouns to form words of the same class as in super-sophisticated, super-modern, super-simplification, supernatural, super-brain, etc. sur-: meaning “over and above” added to nouns e.g. surcharge, surpass, surtax, e
25、tc. ultra-: meaning “extreme”, used with adjectives, e.g. ultra-conservation, ultra-intelligent, ultra-civilized, ultra-feminine, etc. under-: meaning “insufficient, beneath”, productive with verbs, nouns and adjectives, as in underpay, undervalue, undersurface, underground, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学
26、,Word Formation,5) Prefixes of orientation and attitude anti-: meaning “against, opposed to”, with nouns and adjectives as in anti-abortion, anti-government, anti-neuclear, etc. contra-: meaning “opposite, contrasting”, as in contradistinction, contrafatural, etc. counter-: meaning “against, in oppo
27、sition to”, with nouns and verbs, as in counter-espionage, counter-offer, counter-reform, etc. pro-: meaning “for, on the side of” with nouns and adjectives to form new adjectives as in pro-democracy, pro-authority, pro-student, etc. Locative prefixes(定位前缀): extra-: meaning “outside”, with adjective
28、s, e.g. extra-curricular, extra-territorial, extra-marital, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,fore-: meaning “front part of”, with nouns, verbs, and adjectives, e.g. forearm, forehead, etc. inter-: meaning “between, among” with nouns, adjectives and verbs, as in inter-city, intermarriage, inte
29、rweave, etc. intra-: meaning “within” with nouns and adjectives to form new adjectives as in intra-class, intra-party, etc. super-: meaning “above” with nouns as in superstructure, superscript, etc. trans-: meaning “across, from one place to another” with nouns, adjectives and verbs, as in transatla
30、ntic, transcontinental, trans-world, etc. tele-: meaning “distant” as in telecommunication, tele-printer, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,6) Prefixes of time and order ex-: meaning “former” with nouns as in ex-professor, ex-lover, ex-husband, etc. fore-: meaning “before” with verbs and nouns
31、 as in fore-word, forethought, etc. post-: meaning “after”, with nouns and adjectives as in post-election, post-war, post-independent, etc. pre-: meaning “before, in advance”, with nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g. pre-trial, pre-retirement, pre-industrial, etc. re-: meaning “again, back” with verbs
32、 and nouns as in remarriage, reread, reconsider, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,7) Number prefixes bi-, di-: meaning “two” as in bicycle, bilingual, di-meter, dichotomy, etc. multi-, poly-: meaning “many” as in multi-candidate, multi-purpose, multi-polytechnic, polysyllable, etc. semi-, dem
33、i-, hemi-: meaning “half” as in semi-automatic, semi-naked, demigod, demi-devil, hemisphere, hemi-morphic, etc. tri-: meaning “three” as in triangle, tricolour, tripartite, etc. uni-, mono-: meaning “one” as in unisex, uniform, mono-centric, monorail, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,8) Conve
34、rsion prefixes(逆反前缀) a-: added to verbs to produce predicative adjectives as in asleep, awash, aglow, atremble, etc. be-: with nouns to form transitive verbs as in befriend, bewail; with nouns plus ed to yiel adjectives as in bewildered, bejeweled, beloved, etc. en-, em-: mainly with nouns or adject
35、ives to create transitive verbs, em- occurring to words beginning with p,b,m, as in endanger, ennoble, enrich, embitter, empower, etc.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,9) Miscellaneous prefixes(其它前缀) auto-: meaning “self” with nouns and adjectives as in autobiography, autosuggestion, etc. neo-: me
36、aning “new, revived” with nouns and adjectives as in neo-Liberal, neo-Nazi, neo-expressionism, etc. pan-: meaning all, the whole of”, with adjectives as in pan-continental, pan-European, pan-Indian, etc. proto-: meaning “first, original” with nouns as in proto-fascist, proto-coalition, proto-horse,
37、etc. vice-: meaning deputy,” freely with nouns as in vice-provost, vice-chairman, vice-governor.,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,2. Suffixation: Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases. Suffixes have only a small semantic role; their primary function is to change the
38、 word class with a slight modification of meaning. In this sense, we will discuss suffixes in terms of their grammatical functions. (1) Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns: This group can be categorized into two types. One is the formation of concrete nouns, and the other is the formation of abstract n
39、ouns. As far as the former is concerned, we have the following suffixes:,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,-eer (“skilled in, engaged in”, engineer), -er (“having as dominant characteristic, denizen of”, teacher),-ess (“female”, empress), -ette (“compact”, cigarette), -let (“small, unimportant”, bo
40、oklet) and -ster (“involved in”, trickster).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,As for the latter (abstract nouns), we have:age (“measure of, process or state”, storage),-dom (“state, condition”, martyrdom), -ery, -ry (“condition or behavior associated with”, slavery, devilry; also meaning “place”,
41、bakery), -ful (amount contained in”, armful), -hood (“state, condition”, adulthood), -ing (“the material of”, tubing; also meaning “activity connected with”, farming), -ism (“doctrine of, practice of”, terrorism), -ship (“occupation, position”, governorship; also meaning “skill and ability”, sportsm
42、anship; and meaning “relation”, friendship).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,2) Deverbal nouns (由动词转化而来的名词): -ant (“occupationa and participation”, assistant; also meaning “an object or substance”, coolant), -ee (“receiver of the action”, addressee, also meaning “doer of the action”, absentee),-e
43、r, -or (doer of the action”, commander; also referring to non-person, cooker), -age (“actionof, instance of”, marriage), -al (the process or stage of”, survival), -ance (“action, process, state”, performance),2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,-ation, -ition, -sion, -ion (“action, process, state” or
44、 “product of, institution produced by”, operation, realization), -ence, (“action, process, state”, persistence),-ing (action of”, wedding; also producing concrete nouns such as building), -ment (“result of”, assessment), -ity (“state or condition”, productivity), -ness (“state or quality”, youthfuln
45、ess).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,3) Noun and adjective suffixes: -ese (“member of, language of”, Journalese, Americanese),-an, -ian (“citizen and language of”, Australian; also meaning “adherent to, relating to”, Darwinian), -ist (“adherent to beliefs and behaviors”, socialist),-ite (“adhere
46、nt to, member of”, Thacherite).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,(2) Adjective suffixes: 1) Denominal suffixes: -ed (added to those noun(adj)-plus-noun compounds, blue-eyed), -ful (“full of, providing”, graceful),-ish (“somewhat like, approximately”, monkeyish; also meaning “language and nationali
47、ty”, Polish; and meaning “somewhat”, thinnish), -less (“without”, nameless), -like (“like”, dreamlike), -ly (“having the quality of”, soldierly), -y (somewhat like, characterized by”, flowery), -al, -ial, ical (“relating to”, residential, sentimental, philosophical), -esque (“having the properties o
48、f”, Chaplinesque), -ic (“resembling, involving, connected with”, poetic), -ous, -eous, -uous (“having a particular quality”, sensuous, marvelous).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,2) Deverbal suffixes: We have able, -ible (“possibility”, washable, convertible), -ative, -ive, -sive (talkative, acti
49、ve, decisive). (3) Adverb suffixes: -ly (“in manner, to a degree”, gradually), -ward, -wards (“direction”, homewards, downward), -wise (“in manner”, sleep-walker-wise; also meaning “as far as concerned”, education-wise). (4) Verb suffixes: -ate (“give or make or become”, originate, hyphenate), -en (
50、“make or become”, strengthen), -ify (“make, endow with”, amplify), -ize, -ise (“involving or related to”, symbolize; -ise belongs to British use).,2019/1/20,丰国欣：英语词汇学,Word Formation,3. Compounding (or composition) is the formation of new words by joining two or more bases. Words formed in this way are called compounds. So a compound is a “lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word” (Quirk et al, 1985). Compounds can be written solid (silkman), hyphenated (honey-bee) and open (tear gas).,
