1、第一章1.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication2.Design features of languageArbitrariness( 任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)Duality （二层性） :The property of having two leve
2、ls of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.Productivity/creativity(创造性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by
3、 its users.Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. (p7)3. Functions of language Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational) Interpersonal(人际功能): to establ
4、ish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background, accent, status) Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare). Emotive/Expressive ( 情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.Phatic
5、 communion(寒暄交流 ) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (Health, weather) Recreational function(娱乐 ): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)Metalingual function(元语言功能): to
6、 talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.5. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive the categories of the verb 动词的范畴: tense, aspect, voice, etc.6Number is mostly a category of the noun and pronoun 名词和不可数名词.Two te
7、rms of number in nouns: singular and plural 单数和复数Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs7. Gender is also mostly a category of the noun and pronoun.In English, the gender distinctions are on the whole natural, determined by the biological gender of the creature.8. Case is u
8、sed in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.在词类分析中，格范畴用来辨别句子中词之间的句法关系In English, pronouns have three cases of nominative 主格, accusative 受格, and genitive 与格. Nouns have two of general and genitive 所有格In English, the case of noun is realized i
9、n three channels:(a) inflection(b) following a preposition(c) word order9. Tense 时态: the absolute location of an event or action on time. It is marked by an inflection of the verb. As a result, there are only two tenses recognized now: past and present.Since the future time does not involve any infl
10、ection of the verb, we do not refer to a “future tense”, even though in many different ways we can talk about the future.10. Aspect 体: It has nothing with time, and it tells us whether an action is ongoing or completed.Perfective（完成体） and Imperfective（进行体）Perfective and Progressive (in English)11. V
11、oice 语态: describe the relationship between verb and subjectPassive 被动语态 and active 主动语态12. Concord and governmentConcord (一致关系) refers to agreement between words, especially between a verb and the subject of a sentence.Government (支配关系) is a type of grammatical relationship between two or more eleme
12、nts in a sentence.In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between prepositions and nouns.13.The Structural Approach ，由 Ferdinand de Saussure 提出14.Syntactic Relations：Positional relations 位置关系、Relations of substitutab
13、ility 替代关系、Relations of co-occurrence 同现关系15.Immediate constituent (直接成分) is any meaningful constituent at the first step in an analysis.16.An endocentric construction (向心结构) is a construction that contains:1) a head, which is the single obligatory element in the construction;2) one or more optional
14、 elements subordinate to the head.17.theme (主位) refers to the known information which is not new to the reader or listenerRheme (述位) refers to the information that is new. The new information is what is to be transmitted to the reader or listenerThe linguists of the Prague school believed that sente
15、nce may be analyzed from the functional side as well as the grammatical side.subject, predicate (grammatical side)theme, rheme (functional side)第五章1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2Geoffrey Leech 利奇 Seven types of meaning7
16、 种意义类型 :Conceptual meaning 概念意义Connotative meaning 内涵意义Social meaning 社会意义Affective meaning 感情意义 Associative Meaning 联想意义（ ）Reflected meaning 反射意义Collocative meaning 搭配意义Thematic meaning 主位意义3.Conceptual meaning (概念意义 ) is also called “denotative”（外延义）and it is concerned with the relationship betwee
17、n a word and the thing it refers to.概念意义也叫外延义，它关注词语跟它所指称事物之间的联系Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary.4.Associative meaning (联想意义) is the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear the wordAssociative meaning is the meaning which a word suggests or implies.5.Thematic
18、meaning (主位意义) is “what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.”它是由词序和词语重音所决定的6. The Referential Theory（指称理论）： The Referential Theory The Semantic Triangle Sense and Reference7.The referential theory 指称理论 is the theory of meaning which relates the
19、 meaning of a word to the thing it refers to.指称论是把词语意义跟它所指称的事物联系起来的理论8. The semantic triangle 语意三角 is the indirect relation between a word and a thing it refers to and it is mediated by concept.语意三角指词和所指事物之间没有直接关系，它们是以概念为中介的9.Sense (涵义) is a set of properties possessed by a name.10.Reference (指称 ) i
20、s the symbolic relationship that a linguistic expression has with the concrete object.11. The sense of an expression is the thought it expresses, while its reference is the object it representsEvery word has a sense, but not every word has a reference.12. Sense Relations 涵义关系Synonymy（同义关系）Antonymy（反
21、义关系） （ Gradable、Complementary 、 Converse）Hyponymy（上下义关系）13.But total synonymy is rare. They may differ in style, connotations and dialect.14.Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系) 、Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系) 、Converse antonymy (反向反义关系)15. Componential analysis is an approach to the study of meaning which a
22、nalyses a word into a set of meaning components.16. Sentence Meaning17. Sense relations between sentences Synonymity ( 同义)a. He was a bachelor all his life.b. He never married all his boy.Sentences a and b are in a synonymous relationship: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the truth of a
23、nother sentence Inconsistency (矛盾)a. Elizabeth II is Queen of England.b. Elizabeth II is a man.Sentences a and b are in a relationship of contradiction: the truth of one sentence necessarily implies the falseness of another sentence. Entailment (蕴涵)a. He married a blonde heiress.b. He married a blon
24、de.Entailment refers to a kind of meaning inclusion. If x entails y, the meaning of x is included in y. Presupposition (前提预设)It is what a speaker or writer assumes that the receiver of the message already knows.Contradiction (矛盾)Semantic anomaly (语义反常)18. An integrated theoryCompositionality(组合性原则 )
25、：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meaning of the constituent words and the way they are combined.This semantic theory is the integration of syntax and semanticsTheir basic idea is that a semantic theory consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of projection rulesThe dictionary provides
26、the grammatical classification and semantic information of wordsThe projection rules are responsible for combining the meanings of words together.19.Logical semantics（逻辑语义学）A proposition(命题) is what is to be expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.It is
27、the basic meaning which a sentence express.A very important property of the proposition is that it has a truth value.第七章1.Language and Culture：Sapir-Whorf HypothesisEvidence Given by Whorf Implication of SWH Relation between Language and Culture2SHW can be broken down into two basic principles:Lingu
28、istic determinism (语言决定论): the language we use determines the way we view about the world around us.Language may determine our thinking patterns. (语言决定思维) P1623. Relation between Language and CultureLanguage influences thought and culture，Language varies in categories and concepts, thus reflecting t
29、he different world views of different language users, that is, culture and thought are conditioned by languageCulture influences language，Every language is a part of a culture. As such, it can not but serve and reflect cultural needs. When a culture experience radical changes, the vocabulary also un
30、dergoes corresponding alterations4.Language and SocietyRelation between Language and SocietyVarieties of language（Dialects、Registers ）Bilingualism and DiglossiaPidgin and Creole5.Varieties related to the user are normally known as dialects and varieties related to use as registers.6.Dialectal Variet
31、ies ：Regional dialect、Social dialect（Sociolect、 Language and gender、 Language and age、 Idiolect、 Ethnic dialect）7.Social dialect refers to a variety of language associated with a particular social group, such as a particular social class, or ethnic group, or those based on age, gender and occupation
32、.8.An ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.9.Idiolect refers to the speech variety of an individual.
33、Every speaker has his own way of expressing his or her idea.10.Register refers to the functional variety of language that is defined according to its use in a context of situation.11.Hallidays Register TheoryLanguage varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.Halliday distingu
34、ishes 3 variables that determine the register:field of discourse (语场)、 tenor of discourse (语旨)、 mode of discourse (语式)12.Bilingualism (双语制): the use of two languages, esp with equal or nearly equal fluency.13.Diglossia (双语体现象): when two varieties of a language exist side by side; and each is used fo
35、r different purposes, this is called diglossia.14A pidgin : it is a special language variety that mixes and blends languages used for communicative purposes by groups of people who do not know each others language.15.A creole : when a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and
36、 is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a creole.第八章1.What is PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of language in context / use / communication.2 Semantics and PragmaticsSimilarity：Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic study of me
37、aningDifference：Semantic meaning: the more constant, inherent side of meaning ；Pragmatic meaning: the more indeterminate, the more closely related to context ；Pragmatic = meaning - semantics3.Three Contents :Speech Act Theory、The Theory of Conversational Implicature、Post-Gricean Developments4.Speech
38、 Act Theory(言语行为理论) ： Performatives and Constatives A theory of the illocutionary act5.The utterance which performs an act is called a performative (行事话语) 。6.A constative (述事话语) is an utterance which asserts something that is either true or false.7Characteristics of Implicature：Calculability 、Cancel
39、lability、Non-detachability、Non-conventionality8.Calculability(可推导性): means that implicature of an utterance can be calculated based on literal meaning, CP and its maxims, context, etc.9.Cancellability/Defeasibility(可取消性/可废除原则) If the factors that conversational implicature relied on change, the implicature will also change.10.Relevance Theory 关联理论Communicative Principle of Relevance：Every ostensive stimulus conveys a presumption of its own optimal relevance.Cognitive Principle of Relevance：Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.
