1、1The Second Law of Thermodynamics热力学第二定律Thermodynamics is concerned with transformation of energy, and the laws of thermodynamics describe the bounds within which these transformation are observed to occur. 热力学讨论的是能量的转换，热力学定律描述了这些转变能够发生的边界条件。The first law, stating that energy must be conserved in al
2、l ordinary processes, has been the underlying principle of the preceding chapters. 第一定律指出了在一般过程中，能量是守恒的，它是前面章节遵循的根本原则。The first law imposes no restriction on the direction of energy transformation. 第一定律对能量转换的方向性没有限制。Yet, all our experience indicates the existence of such a restriction. 然而，我们的经验表明这种限
3、制的存在。To complete the foundation for the science of thermodynamics, it is necessary to formulate this second limitation. Its concise statement constitutes the second law. 为了完善热力学的科学基础，有必要规定第二个限制条件，它简洁的内容构成了第二定律。The differences between the two forms of energy, heat and work, provide some insight into
4、the second law. 两种形式的能量：热和功之间的不同，为第二定律提供了一些见解。These differences are not implied by the first law. 这些不同是第一定律中没有提到的。In an energy balance both work and heat are included as simple additive terms, implying that one unit of heat, such as a joule or BTU, is equivalent to the same unit of work. 在能量平衡中，功和热作
5、为简单的加和项，表明了，一个单位的热，如 1J 或1BTU，等于相同单位的功。Although this is true with respect to an energy balance. 虽然这是真正的能量平衡。Experience teaches that there is a difference in quality between heat and work. 2经验告诉我们，热和功之间有一个质量的差异。This experience can be summarized by the following facts. 这方面的经验可以从以下事实中总结出来。First, the ef
6、ficiency of the transformation from one form of work to another such as electrical to mechanical as accomplished in an electric motor, can be made to approach 100 percent as closely as is desired. 首先，使得从一种形式的功向另一种形式的功的转换效率尽可能的接近于我们所向往的 100%，比如，从电能到机械能的转换能够通过电动机来实现。One needs merely to exert more and
7、more care in eliminating irreversibilities in the apparatus. 我们仅仅需要越来越关心装置设备中不可逆性的消除。On the other hand, efforts to convert energy transferred to a system as heat into any of the forms of work show this regardless of improvements in the machines employed. 另一方面，将转移到系统中的热量转换成任何一种形式的功表明，这与所使用机器的改进无关。The
8、 conversion is limited to low values（40 percent is an approximate maximum）. 这种转换率是被限制在一个较小的值内（40%大约是最大值） 。These efficiencies are so low, in comparison with these obtained for the transformation of work from form to another, that there can be no escape from the conclusion that there is an intrinsic d
9、ifference between heat and work, in the reverse direction, the conversion of work into heat with 100 percent efficiency is very common. 与不同形式的功之间转换的效率相比，这些效率是太低了，以至于得出一个不可逃避的结论：热与功之间有一个本质的不同，在相反的方向上，功向热转换的效率为 100%，这是非常普通的。Indeed, efforts are made in nearly every machine to eliminate this conversion,
10、 which decrease efficiency of operation. 事实上，为了消除这种转变，我们在努力改进几乎每台机器，这降低了操作效率。These facts lead to the conclusion that heat is a less versatile or more degraded form of energy than work. 从这些事实中可以得出一个结论，热与功相比，没有那么多变，没有更多能量的退化形式。Work might be termed energy of a higher quality than heat. 3功可以被称为是比热具有更高质量
11、的能量。To draw further upon our experience, we know that heat always flows from a higher temperature level to a lower one, and never in the reverse direction. 为了进一步的总结我们的经验，我们知道从高温到低温将会产生热量，然而在相反的方向上不会有热量产生。This suggests that heat itself may be assigned a characteristic quality as well as quantity, and
12、 that this quality depends upon temperature, the relation of temperature to the quality of heat is evident from the increased in efficiency with which heat may be converted into work as the temperature of the source is raised. 这表明，热本身可能被分配了一定的质量和数量，这个质量取决于温度，从增加的效率来看，温度和热的质量的关系是明显的：在这样的效率下，随着原始材料温度的
13、升高，热能够转化成功。For example, the efficiency, or work output per unit of fuel burned, of a stationary power plant increases as the temperature of the steam in the boiler and superheater rises. 例如，一个固定式发电站的效率，或者燃烧每单位燃料的输出功，随着锅炉或过热器中蒸汽温度的升高而增加。Statements of the Second Law第二定律的陈述The observations just describ
14、ed are results of the restriction imposed by the second law on the direction of actual processes. Many general statements may be made which described this restriction and hence, serve as statements of the second law. Two of the most common are: 刚刚描述的观察结果是第二定律对实际过程在方向上的限制的结果。许多通用的语句能够描述这个限制，因此，这些描述可以
15、作为第二定律的陈述。最常见的两个是：1. No apparatus can operate in such a way that its only effect（in system and surroundings）is to convert heat absorbed by a system completely into work. 1. 没有设备能够仅仅产生这样一种影响：实现将系统吸收的热量全部转化成功。2. Any process which consists solely in the transfer of heat from one temperature to a higher
16、 one is impossible. 任何一个从低温到高温的过程仅仅包含热量的转移是不可能的。4Statement 1 does not imply that heat cannot be converted into work, but does mean that changes, other than those resulting directly from the conversion of heat into work, must occur in either the system or surroundings. 陈述 1 并不意味着热量不能转化为功，但是意味着，除了由热转化
17、成功直接产生的变化之外，在系统或环境中一定有其他的变化发生。Consider the case of an ideal gas in a cylinder and piston assembly expanding reversibly at constant temperature. 考虑理想气体恒温下在活塞气缸内可逆膨胀。Work is produced in the surroundings（consider the gas as the system）equal to the integral of the pressure times the change in volume. 将气
18、体考虑为系统，对环境做的功等于压力乘以体积变化的积分。Since the gas is ideal, u=0 then, according to the first law the heat absorbed by the gas from the surrounding is equal to the work produced in the surroundings because of the reversible expansion in the gas. 由于气体是理想气体，所以 u=0，根据第一定律，气体从周围环境吸收的热量等于周围环境所做的功，因为气体膨胀是可逆的。At fir
19、st this might seem to be a contradiction of statement 1, since in surroundings the only result has been the complete conversion of heat into work. 乍一看，这好像与陈述 1 相矛盾，由于在环境中，唯一的结果是由热到功的完全转变。However the second law statement requires that there also be no change in the system, a requirement which has not
20、 been met in this example. 然而，第二定律要求在系统中也没有任何变化，在这个例子中，并没有满足这个要求。Since the pressure of the gas decreased, this process cannot be continued indefinitely. 由于气体压力下降，这个过程不能无限地继续下去。The pressure of the gas would soon reach that of the surroundings, and further expansion would be impossible. 气体的压力很快就会达到环境的
21、压力，进一步的膨胀是不可能的。Therefore, a method of continuously producing work from heat by this method would fail, if the original state of the system were restored in order to comply with the requirements of statements 1, it would be necessary to take energy from the surroundings in the form of work in order t
22、o compress the gas back to its original pressure. 5因此，这样由热来连续生产功的方法是失败的，为了符合陈述 1 的要求，如果系统的初始状态被恢复，为了压缩气体回到原始压力，很有必要从环境中以功的形式获得能量。At the same time energy as heat would be transferred to the surroundings in order to maintain constant temperature. 同时，为了保持恒温，热量将会转移到环境中。This reverse process would require
23、 just the amount of work gained from the expansion; hence the net work produced would be zero. 这种反转过程仅仅要求膨胀时获得的功的量；因此，产生的净功是等于 0。From this discussion it is evident that statement 1 might be expressed in an alternative way, viz: la. it is impossible to convert the heat absorbed completely into work i
24、n a cyclical process. 从这个讨论中，可以很明显地看出，陈述 1 可能有另外一种表达方式，即，1a. 在一个循环过程中不可能将吸收的热量全部转化为功。The term cyclical requires that the system be restored periodically to its original state. 这一术语周期性要求系统定期恢复到原来的状态。In the previous example the expansion and compression back to the original state constitute a complete
25、 cycle. 在前面的离子中，膨胀和压缩回到原来的状态构成了一个完整的循环。If the process is repeated, it becomes a cyclical process. 如果重复该过程，它成为一个循环过程。The restriction to a cyclical process in statement 1a amounts to the same limitation as that introduced by the words only effect in statement 1. 陈述 1a 中对循环过程的限制相当于陈述 1 中 only effect 引出
26、的相同的限制。The second law does not prohibit the production of work from heat, but it does place a limitation upon the efficiency of any cyclic process. 第二定律并不禁止热产生功，但是它限制了任何循环过程的效率。The partial conversion of heat into work forms the basis for all commercial plants for the production of power（water power is an exception）. 部分热量转化为功，这为所有商业工厂能量的生产（水力除外）奠定了基础。The development of a quantitative expression for the efficiency of this process is the next objective in the treatment of the second law. 这个过程效率的数量表达式的发展是第二定律处理的下一个目标。
