1、讲义三 Morphology,Grace Tan,T/F,PLURAL is a morpheme. Morphemes are regarded as abstract constructs in the system of sound. A root is not always a free form. All bound morphemes are affixed.,1.Compound words consists of _ morphemes. A.bound B.free C.both free and bound 2.Ns , vs, adjs and many advs are
2、 _ A.grammatical words B.lexical words C.neither grammatical nor lexical words 3.Radar is a(an)_ A.acronym B.blending C.coinage D.clipping,填空题,1.Polymorphemic words other than compounds have two parts: the roots and the _. 2. On, before and together are _ words :they are words which do not take infl
3、ectional endings. 3. Give the regular allormorphs of plural in English:_,_,_,_,_,_. 4.nouns, verbs and adjectives are _ words rather than function words. 5. In the addition of new words, smog is a (an)_. 6.Waltz is borrowed from _.,Lexicon,In its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary ;,I
4、n its technical sense here, lexicon deals with the analysis and creation of words, idioms and collocations.,What is word?,The WORD is a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.,3.1.1 Three senses of word,1.a p
5、hysical definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pause or blank 2. Word both as a general term and as a specific form Write writes written 3. a grammatical unite.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Li.Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.,3.1.2 Identification of words
6、,Stability (稳定性) Relative uninterruptibility (相对连续性)disappointment * dis ppoint ment /*dis#ppoint#ment A minimum free form （最小的自由形式）-Is Jane coming this evening?- Possibly.,INVARIABLE WORDS refer to those words such as “since“, “when“, “seldom“, “through“, “hello“. They do not take inflective ending
7、s.,1) Variable vs. invariable words可变词与不可变词,In VARIABLE WORDS, one could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.,3.1.3 classification of words,GRAMMATICAL WORDS- FUNCTION WORD, FORM WORD, FUNCTOR a word w
8、hose role is largely or wholly grammatical.LEXICAL WORDword which carries the semantic content,2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words,CLOSED-CLASS - one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pron, Prep, Conj, Art etc Open-class: Noun, Verb, Adj,Adv,3）Closed-class
9、words and open-class words,Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. Some new terms in word class: Particle小品词: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “
10、look back”, etc. Auxiliary助动词: do, have,Pro-forms代词形式: substitutes for other terms. Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his. Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did. Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too. Pro-locative: He went there.,Determiner限定词
11、: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers. As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.,Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters ; double, twice, three times ; s
12、uch, what (exclamative) Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; PossP; we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little Postdeterminers: every; many, several, few, little; one, two
13、, three ; (a) dozen,3.2 The formation of word 3.2.1 Morpheme and Morphology,Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. Two fields: inflectional morphology and derivational morphology Morpheme：The smallest unit in terms
14、of relationship between expression and content, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.,3.2.2 types of morpheme,distempered infamous,As a result of _, the negative morpheme in imperfect and impossible is im-rather t
15、han in-. Give the regular allomorphs of past tense in Engilish:_,_,_.,湖南大学2004Each of the following Persian words is poly-morphemic.You are required to match each of the notions given below with a morpheme in Persian.(Note xar means “buy” and id designates past tense.) Xaridi You(sg.)bought. Naxarid
16、am I did not buy. Namixaridand They were not buying. Mixarid He bought. Naxaridim We did not buy. Mixarid He was buying. Mixaridid You(pl.) were buying. Xaridam I bought. Match :(1) I (2) you(sg.) (3) not (4) was /were V-ING(contious) Key: (1) am (2) i (3) na (4) miVid 另一题为刘版课后习题关于“-er”的。,Root vs.st
17、em,Polymorphemic words other than compounds may divide into ROOTS and Affixes. Root:part of the word left when all affixes are removed A STEM is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added.,IA vs.DA,Inflectional affixes曲折词缀 :8 grammatical markers Adj:-er est Noun:- s, s V
18、erb:-s,-ing ed en Derivational affixes:prefix suffix infix中缀 circumfix框缀infix: goose/geese foot/feet Circumfix: an affix made up of two separte parts which surround and attach to a root or a stem Eg: ka-an baddang (help)kabaddangan (helpfulness),清华 2001 Divide the following words into Roots, IA and
19、DA. 1)transformations 2) looseleaves ) destructive 4) geese 5) misled 湖大2004 Label the morphological category of the morpheme underlined in each expressions. 1) Ive been here. 2) transform 3) oxen 4) recur,南大2003 You may have noticed that the prefix of combine and that of contain came from the same
20、origin, meaing with or together,but why is it spelled “com-” in combine but “con-” in contain?Use your own words to answer this question. A: The change of /n/ (an alveolar nasal) to /m/(a bilabial nasal) is due to the following phoneme/b/ ,which is also bilabial.,华南理工2004 The following infs and past
21、 participle verb forms are found in Dutch.ROOT INF PP Wandel wandelen gewandeld “walk” Duw duwen geduwd “push” Zag zagen gezegd “saw” With reference to the morphological processes of the prefixing, suffixing, infixing and circumfixing: A: state the morphological rule for forming an inf in Dutch. B:s
22、tate the morphological rule for forming the PP in Dutch. Key: inf=root+en pp=ge+root+d,北外2002 in deriving new words via a prefix such as mis-,there seems to be some constraint on what is permitted. The words in the first column below are acceptable formations, but the forms in the other columns are
23、not. Work out the rule(S)might be for making new adjs with mis-. misadventure mishappy mismilk misjudgement mismeal missad misplaced misglad misword mistrustful misrole miscrazy,The basic meaning of the prefix mis- is “bad, badly, wrong, wrongly”.Thus misfortune means bad fortune and mishave means t
24、o behave badly.likewise, a misdeed is a wrong deed, and misdo means to do wrongly. Mis-forms compounds primarily by attaching to verbs:mishear ,misremember.Mis- also forms compounds by attaching to nouns that come from verbs: miscalculation, mismanagement, mispronunciation.,湖南大学2004 Consider childre
25、ns tendency to overuse morphological rules, what might we expect a young child to use in the place of the following adult words?Justify your choice in each case. A) fish(pl) b)went c) mice d) ate e)brought F) geese g)himself h)women i) hit(pp) j) has Key: Fishes, goed, mouses eated bringed gooses hi
26、sself womans hitted have Children use overgeneralization errors because they use a regular productive process on exceptional words.children use gooses as the plural form of goose instead of geese because regular nouns add an s in the plural.,3.2.3 Inflection &word formation,Inflection :indicates gra
27、mmatical relationships by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person , finiteness, aspect and case. Eg:boy-boys Word-formation : Compounding derivation conversion,Compounding Endocentric eg self-control: a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair Exocentric: there is no head, so not a rela
28、tionship of “a kind of something”, eg scarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck,Derivation,Class-preserving: NN: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet VV: disobey, unfasten AA: grayish, irrelevant,湖南大学2003 It is a fact that morphological processes may be sensitive to certain phonological con
29、text. The english data below illustrate this fact. You are required to state the phonological contexts where the addition of en is possible as shown in (b). (a) whiten madden (b)*bluen *stupidenredden fatten *greenen *vividenquicken deafen *slowen *fartherenliven harden *angryen *difficultensoften d
30、eepen *abstracten * shallowen Key: The suffix-en, which attaches to adjs to form verbs , can only attach to monosyllabic bases ending in obstruents.Verb-en if adj ends in an obstrent( oral stop or fricative)- if adf ends in a sonorant ( nasals, approximants, vowels) Meaning: “to make (more )adj” 广外试
31、题：广州外语外贸大学考研试题 涉及chapter 3.doc,3.3 Lexical change,3.3.1 Lexical change proper Invention, blending, abbreviation, acronym, back-formation,analogical creation, borrowing,3.3.2 Phonol-ogical changeLossAdditionMetathesisAssimilation,3.3.4 Sema-ntic changeBroadening, Narrowing, Meaning shift, Class shift
32、,Folk etymology,3.3.3 morpho- syntactical changeMorpholo -gical change,Syntactical change,3.3.5 Ortho-graphic change,Borrowing,French: administration, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, fe
33、ast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, study,Latin: admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minor Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy Spanish and Portuguese: banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, cho
34、colate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla,Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcano Dutc
35、h: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yacht,Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, safari, sofa, zero Indian: bungalow, cashmere, curry, gin
36、ger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, yoga Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoon,Types of loan words,Loanwords: 借词The borrowing of LOANWORDS is a process in which both form
37、and meaning are borrowed with only a slight change, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter. “encore” and “au pair” from French, “sputnik” from Russian, etc. coup detat, kungfu,Loanblend 混合借词,LOANBLENDING is a process in which part of the form is native and the
38、rest has been borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed. This is more typical with words in which the root is borrowed while the native affix is added. For example, troublesome, colourless, uncertain, etc.,Loanshift 转移借词,LOANSHIFT is a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is nati
39、ve. Bridge when it refers to a type of card game, the meaning was borrowed from the Italian ponte. artificial satellite Russian sputnik. All the borrowings in Chinese are loanshifts.,Loan translation 翻译借词,This is a special type of borrowing, in which each morpheme or word is translated in the equiva
40、lent morpheme or word in another language. almighty Latin omnipotens superman German Ubermensch. This is also called CALQUE (仿译词), which may be a word, a phrase, or even a short sentence. free verse L verse libreblack humor Fr humour noirfound object Fr objet trouv,3.2 Phonological change,Phonologic
41、al change refers to changes in sound leading to changes in form. mus /mus/ mouse /mas/ hus /hus/ house /has/ ut /ut/ out /at/ sup /sup/ south /sa/,Loss of sound 音的脱落,It can refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonogical system.Old English holh /holx/ hollow /hl/sorh /sor
42、x/ sorrow /sr/niht /nixt/ night /nait/draugath /druxt/ drought /draut/,Sound loss may also occur in utterances at the expense of some unstressed vowels. temperature/temprt/ /temprt/ laboratory /lbrtri/ /lbrtri/ cabinet /kbnit/ /kbinit/ postscript /pstskript/ /psskript/,Loss of sound The pen n pencil
43、 n the drawer are better n typewriter to copy n easy thing like this.,Addition of sound 添加 Sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence. This is usually the result of borrowing. Latin O.F. Spanish Portugese studium estudie estudio estudo,Metathesis 换位,METATHESIS is a process involving a c
44、hange in the sequence of sounds. Metathesis had been originally a performance error, which was overlooked and accepted by the speech community. They taxed him with his failures.(accused) They took him to task for his failures.(scolded) Spoonerism (首字母换位) the queer old Dean the dear old QueenIs the b
45、ean dizzy? Is the dean busy?,Assimilation 同化,ASSIMILATION refers to the change of a sound by the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. The assimilation processes at work could be explained by the “theory of least effort省力理论”; that i
46、s, in speaking we tend to use as little effort as possible so that we do not want to vary too often the places of articulation in uttering a sequence of sounds. Assimilation takes place in quick speech very often. For instance, in expressions such as immobile, irrevocable, impolite, illegal, the neg
47、ative prefixes im-, il-, or ir- should be in- etymologically.,3.3 Morphological change,do(e)th does, goeth goes, hath has, findeth finds, hopeth hopes do(e)st do，playest play，hearest hear， speakest speak the campus of the university the universitys campus,3.4 Syntactical change,In the 15th c, there
48、were double comparatives or superlatives in English, but today there are not. more gladder more glad, more lower lower, most royalest most royal In old English，the negative particle “not” was usually put in front of the verb or at the end of a sentence, but today it comes after the finite verb. It n
49、ot belongs to you. It doesnt belong to you.We saw you not. We didnt see you.,Fusion or blending is also used in making new phrasal and sentential structures.Rarely + hardly even rarely even Ever and anon + now and then every now and then Equally good + just as good equally as good Its no use getting there before nine + Theres no use in getting there before nine. Theres no use getting there before nine.,
