1、Chapter 6,Sense Relations,Contents,Semantically, lexemes are all related in one way or another. A lexeme which is related to other lexemes is related to them in sense, hence sense relations.The field of sense relations are polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy. Semantic field is common
2、ly felt to be an integral part of sense relations.,General Introduction,Definition: Polysemy plisi:mi means that one single word has two or more senses at the same time. 它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义。The bulk of English words are polysemantic; one meaning words are rare and are mainly scientific terms such a
3、s hydrogen, molecule, and so on.How does a word acquire new meanings?,Polysemy 一词多义关系,(1) Diachronic approach历时研究方法It is assumed to be the result of growth and development of the semantic structure of one and same word. 一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。,1.1 Two approaches to polysemy,Example: face The front of
4、 the head 脸 The expression of the countenance 表情 A surface of a thing 表面 The appearance, outward aspect 外表, 外貌 Dignity, self-respect, prestige, as in lose /save face 面子, 威信 The topography of an area 地形 Effrontery, audacity 厚颜,(1) Diachronic approach 历时研究方法,All the meanings 2-7 are derived from 1.The
5、 first meaning is the primary meaning原始意义.Later meanings are called derived meanings派生意义. These meanings were acquired by extension, narrowing, analogy, transfer, etc.,(1) Diachronic approach 历时研究方法,There are also many instances in which the primary meaning gave birth to new meanings, and as a resul
6、t the primary meaning became obsolete or disappeared altogether. A good example is pain, whose original meaning was penalty or punishment, and now this meaning is preserved only in such phrases as pains and penalty and upon/under pain of (death). The derived meanings suffering, great discomfort of t
7、he body or mind have become prevalent.,(1) Diachronic approach 历时研究方法,Synchronically, polysemy is viewed as the coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a historical period of time. 从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。The basic meaning of a word is called the central meaning 中心意义. The derive
8、d meanings are secondary in comparison.,(2) Synchronic Approach共时研究方法,There are cases where the central meaning has gradually diminished in currency, and one of the derived meanings has become dominant. Example: gay Joyous and lively, merry 快乐的 Bright, brilliant 鲜明的 Given to social life and pleasure
9、 寻欢作乐的 Wanton, licentious 放荡的 Homosexual 同性恋的 The last one is now the most frequently use meaning.,(2) Synchronic Approach共时研究方法,The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy follows two courses, traditionally known as radiation and concatenation. (1) Radiation辐射型 Semantically, radiation
10、 is the process which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays. 从语义学上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射。 All the meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central me
11、aning.这些次要词义之间相互独立，但均可追溯到中心意义。,1.2 Two processes of development,(1) Radiation辐射型,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,Concatenation knktnen is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts until there is no connection between the sens
12、e that is finally developed and the primary meaning.连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系。,(2) Concatenation连锁型,For example:board：木板餐桌会议桌董事会candidate：穿白袍的人身着白袍申请职位的人候选人,(2) Concatenation连锁型,1,2,3,4,Radiation and concatenation are closely related, but are different stages
13、 of the development leading to polysemy. Generally, radiation precedes concatenation. In many cases, the two processes work together, complementing each other.,(2) Concatenation连锁型,Definition:Homonyms hmnmare generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spel
14、ling or identical only in sound or spelling. 同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。,Homonymy同形同音异义关系,Perfect/absolute homonyms完全同形同音异义词 Homographs 同形异义词 hmur:f Homophones 同音异义词 hmufunOf the three types, homophones constitute the largest number and are most common.,2.1 Types of homonyms,Perfect Homony
15、ms(完全同形同音异义词)Words identical both in sound and spelling. bank 银行（financial institution）。“A bank can hold the investments in an account in the clients name.” 倾斜的堤岸（sloping mound）。“As the agriculture development on the east bank, the river will shrink even more.”Bank和bank在意义上没有联系。在词源上，bank来自意大利语，而bank
16、来自斯堪底纳维亚语。 fray fray做“冲突”时，是由15世纪开始出现的，并延续至今。其词根可追溯到14世纪古英语词affray，指“吓唬某人；使不得安宁”。fray做“磨损”源自希腊词fricare（磨擦）。,Perfect homonyms (完全同形同音异义词)She cant bear children so she never talks about them. 1）她不能生小孩，所以也从不谈论孩子。 2）她不能忍受孩子，所以也从不谈论这个话题。Try our sweet corn. Youll smile from ear to ear. （甜玉米广告） 短语“from ear
17、 to ear”（笑得合不拢嘴）中的“ear”（耳朵）与这里的“玉米穗”同音同形不同义。这则广告利用ear表达了双重的意思：“你一尝就会吃一穗又一穗，高兴得合不拢嘴”。 -Why are movie stars so cool? 为什么电影明星那么酷/凉快呢？-Because they have so many fans. 因为他们有那么多影迷/扇子。 这里的cool和fan都具有两个含义，这个双关不但有趣，还非常巧妙。,Homographs 同形异义词Homographs: homo (same) +graph (writing) words identical only in spelli
18、ng lead li:d v.（领导） （guide somebody）lead led n.（铅） （chemical element）refuse rifju:z v. 拒绝（indicate unwillingness）refuse refju:s n. 垃圾（garbage）sow s v. 播种（plant seed）sow sa n. 母猪（female hog）tear t(r) n. 眼泪（single drop of fluid from the eye）tear te (r) v. 撕裂（pull or come apart）,Homographs 同形异义词conduct
19、 v. 指挥演奏（lead instrumental or vocal group）conduct n. 行为（behavior）perfect v. 完成（complete something）perfect adj. 完美的（without faults）compound v.增加（add together）compound adj.合成的（having parts）,Homophones 同音异义词Homophones homo (same) +phone (sound) words identical only in sound. wring - twist 绞，扭 ring - no
20、ise a bell makes 敲钟，打电话 scent - smell 气味 sent - past tense of send 邮寄的过去式 see - to view something sea - large body of salt water tail - cats and dogs have them 尾巴 tale - a story 故事 worn - well used 用旧的，疲倦的 warn - to give notice of potential danger 警告,2.2 Origins of homonyms,(1) change in sound and s
21、pelling e.g.long a. not short, changed from lang (OE)long v. to want very much, changed from langian (OE),2.2 Origins of homonyms,(2) borrowinge.g. fair n. a market, borrowed from feria (L) fair a. pretty, borrowed from foeger (OE),2.2 Origins of homonyms,(3) Shortening (abbreviation, or clipping)e.
22、g.plane n. shortened from aeroplaneplain a. flu n. shortened from influenzaflew v. part tense of flow,2.3 Differentiation of homonyms from polysemants Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. But the fundamental difference between homonyms and p
23、olysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings.,2.3 Differentiation of homonyms from polysemants 一般地说，多义词是一词多义，几个意义之间有历史的或现实的联系，它们都是从一个基本意义派生出来的，有“同源、同族”的关系，而
24、同形同音异义词则是同一拼写或同一发音，但在意义上大多没有任何历史的或现实的联系，它们非同出一源，而只是读音和拼写上的偶合。在词典中，同形同音词通常以独立项分立，而多义词的各不同义项则全部列在同一词项下。,(1) “ Waiter”“Yes, sir”“whats this”“Its bean soap, sir.”“No matter what its been, what is it now?”(2) Why should a man never tell his secrets in a cornfield?Because it has so many ears.(3) Why is th
25、e Middle Ages also called the Dark Ages?Because there were so many Knights.,2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms,From the above examples, we can see that homonyms are often employed to create puns for desired effect of humor or irony for stylistic purposes.,2.4 Rhetoric features of homonyms,3.1 Definit
26、ion: Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning. 同义词是发音和拼写不同但在意义上极为相似或完全相同的词。Synonyms share a likeness in denotation as well as part of speech, for a verb cannot have an adjective as its synonym. 同义词在外延意义和词性上要具有相似性。,Synonymy 同义关系,(1) absol
27、ute synonyms 绝对同义词 also known as complete synonyms, are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meanings. e.g. compositioncompounding word-buildingword-formation,3.2 Types of synonyms,3.2 Type
28、s of synonyms,(2) Relative synonyms /near-synonyms words similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality. e.g. 笑 laugh 哈哈大笑 cackle 咯咯地笑 smile 微笑 roar 狂笑 grin 咧嘴笑 snigger 嬉皮笑脸地笑chuckle 暗笑 giggle 嗤笑 titter 傻笑,Match the following
29、 native terms with their Latin counterparts.Native Latinfriendship maternal hearty enemy inner amity outer acutemotherly cordialsharp interiordeed actionfoe exterior,In this pattern, native, French, and Latin or Greek words co-exist. Native French Latin/Greek begin terror trepidation rise flame inte
30、rrogate ask commence ascend fire firm conflagration fear question secure fast mount initiate,(2) Dialects and regional English e.g. railway (BrE) railroad (AmE)mother (BrE) minny (ScotE) (3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words e.g. occupation/profession walk of life (fig)lie distort the fact (eu
31、ph)die pass away/go to west(4) Coincidence with idiomatic expressions e.g. win gain the upper handdecide make up ones mind,3.4 Discrimination of synonyms同义词的区别,The differences between synonyms may boil down to three areas: denotation, connotation, and application. (1) Differences in Range and Intens
32、ity of MeaningSome synonyms have a wider range of meaning than others, e.g. timid and timorous; comprehend and understand; extend, increase, expand.Synonyms may differ in degree of intensity, e.g. rich and wealth; work and toil; want, wish, desire.,(2) Difference in Stylistic FeaturesSome relative s
33、ynonyms share the same denotation but differ in their stylistic appropriateness, e.g. policeman, constable, bobby, cop; ask, beg, request, entreat, beseech, implore. (3) Difference in Emotive ColoringMany synonyms differ in emotive values, e.g. result consequence; big great; little small tiny. (4) Difference in ApplicationMany synonyms differ in collocations or distribution in sentences, e.g. allow-let; answer-reply; sense-meaning; empty-vacant-blank.,
