1、局部血液循环障碍 Disturbances of local blood circulation,分类,第一节 充血和淤血,(Hyperemia and Congestion),充血和淤血都是指局部组织血管内血液含量增多(Hyperemia and congestion both refer to an increase in blood volume within a tissue but they have different underlying mechnisms)。,一、充血(hyperemia),充血是指器官或组织因动脉输入血量的增多而发生血管内血液量增多。,(一)机制:,(二)分
2、类:,(三)病变和后果(morphology and results),二、淤血(congestion),淤血是指静脉回流受阻,血液淤积于毛细血管和小静脉内。,(二)Morphology Grossly:淤血器官肿胀,紫红,包膜紧张,重量增加,切面潮湿多血;皮肤、粘膜紫绀,局部温度降低。 Microscopically:毛细血管、小静脉扩张淤血,可伴有水肿。 (三)Result: 决定于器官或组织的性质、淤血的程度和时间长短等。,(四)慢性淤血后果(继发病变),1、肺淤血(pulmonary congestion) (1)急性肺淤血(acute pulmonary congestion) Gr
3、ossly:肺体积增大、暗红色,切面流出泡沫状红色液体。 Microscopically:肺泡壁毛细血管扩张充血;肺泡腔内有大量水肿液及红细胞。,(五)重要器官的淤血,急性肺淤血,(2)慢性肺淤血(chronic pulmonary congestion) Grossly:肺褐色硬化(Brown induration) Microscopically:肺泡壁毛细血管扩张充血,肺泡壁变厚和纤维化;肺泡腔内有红细胞、水肿液及心力衰竭细胞(Heart failure cell) 心衰细胞(Heart failure cell):含有含铁血黄素颗粒的巨噬细胞。,chronic pulmonary co
4、ngestion (brown induration),chronic pulmonary congestion,chronic pulmonary congestion,2、慢性肝淤血(Chronic hepatic congestion),(1)Causes:多见于右心衰竭 (2)Morphology: Grossly:肝肿大,包膜紧张,切面红、黄相间,称为槟榔肝(nutmeg liver)。 Microscopically:肝小叶中央区除中央静脉、血窦扩张淤血外,肝细胞因缺氧、受压而变性、萎缩或消失;周边区血窦淤血较晚,可见脂肪变性的肝细胞。 (3)Results:长期慢性肝淤血,间质纤
5、维组织增生,会引起淤血性肝硬变。,Chronic hepatic congestion (nutmeg liver),Chronic hepatic congestion (nutmeg liver),Chronic hepatic congestion,第二节 出 血(hemorrhage),血液从心血管腔溢出,称为出血(hemorrhage, defined as the extravasation of blood from vessels, occurs in a variety of settings) 一、病因和发病机制 (一)破裂性出血 (二)漏出性出血 二、病理变化 (一)内出
6、血(Internal) (二)外出血(External) 三、后果,第三节 血栓形成(thrombosis),在活体的心脏和血管内血液成分形成固体质块的过程称为血栓形成,在这过程中所形成的固体质块称为血栓(thrombus)。,Normal hemostasis,一、血栓形成的条件和机制,3.血 液 凝 固 性 增 高(hypercoagulability),1.心血管内皮细胞的损伤(endothelial injury),2.血 流 状 态 的 改 变(abnormal blood flow),条件,Endothelium,normal,Mechanical barrier,Antiplat
7、elet effects (NO, PGI2 , ADPase),Anticoagulant properties(membrane-associated heparin like molecules, thrombomodulin, protein S, TFPI),Fibrinolytic properties (tPA),Pro- and anticoagulant activities of endothelium.,心血管内皮细胞的损伤,是血栓形成最重要和最常见的原因。 血小板活化是血栓形成极为重要的步骤,其分为三步:(1)粘附反应 (adhesion and conformatio
8、nal change) Platelet adhesion to ECM is mediated largely via interaction with vW factor, which acts as a bridge between platelet surface receptors and exposed collagen.,(2)释放反应 (release reaction)释放纤维蛋白原、纤维连接蛋白、V、vW、血小板IV因子、生长及转化因子;Ca2+、ADP、TXA2(血栓素A2)、 ATP、5-HT、肾上腺素等。 (3)粘集反应 (aggregation)Ca离子、ADP、T
9、XA2共同使血小板粘集成为粘集堆(可逆凝血酶不可逆),即纤维蛋白把血小板紧紧交织在一起。,血小板粘集,Platelet adhesion and aggregation,凝血过程,心血管内膜损伤常见于: (1)风湿性和感染性心内膜炎 (2)动脉粥样硬化斑块溃疡、心肌梗死区心内膜 (3)创伤性、炎症性动静脉损伤 (4)缺氧、休克、败血症等DIC,Abnormal blood flow,Alteration in normal blood flow:长期卧床患者的静脉内、心瓣膜狭窄的心脏内,动脉瘤或血管分支处。 静脉比动脉发生血栓多4倍 (1)静脉瓣 (2)静脉无搏动、血流有时短暂停滞 (3)壁薄
10、、易受压 (4)血液粘性增加,Virchows triad in thrombosis,二、血栓形成的过程和形态,血栓形成的过程,血栓的形态和组成:取决于血栓发生的部位和局部 血流状态。,血栓的类型及其形态,Pale thrombus,Pale thrombus,Attached thrombus,髂动脉血栓,Mixed thrombus,Thrombus in vein,Hyaline thrombus,软化、溶解、吸收 (dissolution),机化、再通(Organization and recanalization),钙 化(Calcification),三、Fate of the
11、thrombus,Organization of thrombus,Organization and recanalization,有利,不利,四、血栓对机体的影响,Thrombus development depends on the relative contribution of the components of Virchows triad: Endothelial injury (e.g., by toxins, hypertension, inflammation, or metabolic products) Abnormal blood flow - stasis or tu
12、rbulence (e.g., due to aneurysms, atherosclerotic plaque) Hypercoagulability, which can be either primary (e.g., factor V Leiden, increased prothrombin synthesis, antithrombin III deficiency) or secondary (e.g., bedrest, tissue damage, malignancy) Thrombi may propagate, resolve, become organized, or
13、 embolize. Thrombosis causes tissue injury by local vascular occlusion or by distal embolization.,Summary of thrombosis,第四节 栓塞(embolism),概念:循环血液中出现的不溶于血液的异常物质随血流阻塞血管腔的现象,称为栓塞;阻塞血管的异常物质称为栓子(embolus)。,一、栓子的运行途径,栓子的运行途径一般与血流的方向一致。,交叉性栓塞:指房间隔或室间隔缺损时,心腔内的栓子偶可由压力高的一侧通过缺损进入另一侧,再随动脉血流栓塞相应的分支,也称反常栓塞。,逆行性栓塞:指
14、在罕见的情况下发生的,如下腔静脉内的栓子,在剧烈咳嗽、呕吐等胸、腹腔内压力骤增时,可能逆血流方向运行,栓塞肝、肾、髂静脉所属分支。,交叉性/逆行性栓塞,血栓栓塞(thromboembolism) 气体栓塞(air embolism) 羊水栓塞 (amniotic fluid embolism) 脂肪栓塞 (fat embolism) 其它(虫卵、肿瘤细胞等)栓塞,二、栓塞的类型和对机体的影响,Sources and effects of venous emboli,1、Thromboembolism,(1)Pulmonary thromboemnolism,栓子来源:95%以上来自下肢深静脉,
15、后果:取决于栓子大小、数目和心肺功能情况,肺动脉栓塞,栓子来源:多源于左心,栓塞部位:多见于脑、肾、脾和下肢,(2)systemic thromboembolism,髂内动脉血栓,概念:是一种由大量空气迅速进入血循环或原溶解于血液内的气体迅速游离形成气泡,阻塞血管所引起的栓塞。前者为空气栓塞,后者是在高气压环境急速转到低气压环境的减压过程中发生的气体栓塞,故又称减压病(decompression sickness)。,2、气体栓塞(gas embolism),空气栓塞,多发生于静脉破裂后空气进入,小量时,不引起严重后果,偶有脑栓塞,后果,超过100毫升时,猝死,机制:空气随血流进入右心聚集,因
16、心脏跳动,空气和血液经搅拌,形成可压缩的泡沫血,阻塞于右心和肺动脉出口,致血流中断。,减压病:又称沉箱病(caisson disease),或氮气栓塞,机制:当气压骤减时,溶解于血液和组织液中氧、二氧化碳和氮迅速游离,形成气泡。氧和二氧化碳易再溶于体液,但氮气泡溶解迟缓,遂在血液和组织间隙内持续存在,在血管内形成气体栓塞。,后果,3、羊水栓塞(amniotic fluid embolism),分娩过程中发生,罕见,子宫强烈收缩,尤其在羊膜破裂逢胎儿头阻塞出口,可将羊水压入破裂的子宫壁静脉窦内,肺循环栓塞,患者突然严重呼吸困难,紫绀、休克、抽搐和昏迷,多数死亡。,机制: 1、 肺循环机械性阻塞及
17、血管痉挛 2、羊水引起过敏性休克, 3、羊水内凝血激活酶样物致DIC,羊水栓塞,Amniotic fluid emboli. Two small pulmonary arterioles are packed with laminated swirls of fetal squamous cells. The surrounding lung is edematous and congested.,4、脂肪栓塞(fat embolism),长骨骨折,严重脂肪组织挫伤和脂肪肝挤压伤。,后果:取决于脂滴大小和量,以及全身受累情况。,机制: 1. 机械性阻塞; 2. 脂滴释出游离脂肪酸引 起血管内皮
18、损害。,5、其他类型栓塞 肿瘤、细菌、血吸虫卵、异物等。,Summary of Embolism,An embolus is any detached solid, liquid, or gaseous mass carried by the blood to a site distant from its origin; the vast majority are part of a dislodged thrombus. Pulmonary emboli derive primarily from lower extremity deep vein thrombosis; their ef
19、fect (sudden death, right heart failure, pulmonary hemorrhage, or infarction) depends on the size of the embolus. Systemic emboli derive primarily from cardiac mural or valvular thrombi, aortic aneurysms, or atherosclerotic plaque; whether an embolus causes tissue infarction depends on the site of e
20、mbolization and collateral circulation.,第五节 梗死(infarction),概念:由血管阻塞引起的局部组织缺血性坏死称为梗死。,病因,血栓形成动脉栓塞动脉痉挛血管受压闭塞,形成条件,供血血管类型 双重血供 吻合支丰富组织对缺血缺氧的耐受性,病变,梗死灶部位、大小和形态:与受阻动脉供血 范围一致梗死灶质地:取决于组织坏死类型梗死灶颜色:与组织含血量多少有关,类型,根据含血量多少根据有无细菌感染,贫血性梗死,条件:动脉阻塞;组织结构较致密,侧枝血管细而少常见器官:心、肾、脾等病变特点:,肉眼:灰白色,界清镜下:中央区:凝固性坏死/液化性坏死;梗死灶外围:炎
21、症反应-充血出血带,肾梗死,出血性梗死,组织特点:组织结构疏松有双重动脉供应或吻合支丰富条件:1. 严重的静脉淤血;2. 动脉阻塞; 3. 组织疏松常见器官:肺、肠等病变特点,肉眼:暗红色镜下:凝固性坏死/液化性坏死+出血,肺出血性梗死,影响/结局,影响:决定于梗死的器官和梗死灶的大小和部位。 结局:瘢痕修复,Summary of Infarction,Infarcts are areas of ischemic, usually coagulative necrosis caused by occlusion of arterial supply or less commonly venou
22、s drainage. Infarcts are most commonly caused by formation of occlusive arterial thrombi, or embolization of arterial or venous thrombi. Infarcts caused by venous occlusion, or in loose tissues with dual blood supply, are typically hemorrhagic (red) whereas those caused by arterial occlusion in compact tissues are pale (white) in color.,