1、Chapter # 5: Learning and MemoryUnconditioned Stimulus (UCS)-the thing that the organism naturally, reflexively responds to -ex: meat powder for a dogUnconditioned Response(UCR)-natural, unlearned, largely reflexive response to the UCS -ex: excitement or anticipation at the presentation of meat powd
2、er (dogs salivate)Conditioned Stimulus (CS)-“what is the learner now responding to that he did not previously respond to in this way?”-initially meaningful stimuli-ex: dog learned to respond to sound of bellConditioned Response (CR)-new, learned response to the CS -ex: dog drooling at sound of bellD
3、elayed Conditioning Arrangements-sub-division of forward conditioning (CS is presented b4 the US)-the CS is present until the US beginsTrace Conditioning Arrangements-CS is removed some time before the US is presentedSimultaneous Conditioning Arrangements-CS and US are presented at the same timeBack
4、ward Conditioning ArrangementsUS is presented before the CS-typically ineffectiveStimulus Generalization-when the subject cannot distinguish among similar but distinct stimuli -ex: Albert was afraid of all other fluffy white objects (similar to rat)Stimulus Discrimination-when the subject can distin
5、guish among similar but distinct stimuli-ex: if the dog salivates only at the bellHigher Order Conditioning-a previous CS is used as the US-in theory can go up to any order as new CSs are linked to old ones-rarely effective beyond the second order-ex: dogs salivating at the sound of metronome, pair
6、that sound with a red night and get conditioning to it, red light would not be paired with the meat powderChapter # 5: Learning and MemoryExtinction -the elimination of the conditioned response-achieved by presenting CS without the US repeatedly-ex: white rat without the loud noiseSpontaneous Recove
7、ry-the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinctionAversion therapy-suppression of an undesirable responses by associating it with aversive (painful or uncomfortable) stimuli -learning involving an unpleasant or harmful stimulus or reinforcerSystematic Desensitization-a guided re
8、duction in fear, anxiety, or aversion -treatment for phobias -trained to relax to increasingly fearful stimuli+ and - reinforcement+ encourages behavior, pleasurable consequence delivered upon completion of desirable action; increases likelihood that particular type of response will repeat removal o
9、f aversive event, not same as punishment, increases probability that given type of response will be repeated; unpleasant condition is removed when a desired behavior is completed+ and - punishment-decreases behavior -positive punishment: discomfort follows response, ex: spanking-negative punishment:
10、 positive state removed after response, ex: groundedEscape and Avoidance Responses-avoidance: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus before it begins-escape: behavior takes away the unpleasant stimulus after it has already startedShaping -reinforcing a subject as it takes successive steps towar
11、d the goal behaviorPrimary and Secondary Reinforcers-primary unlearned and are inherently reinforcing to most members of a species-secondary learn to value these things- primary: food, water, love/attachment/sex- secondary: moneySuccessive Approximations-a series of steps that change behavior to a d
12、esired response patternChapter # 5: Learning and MemorySkinner Box -empty box except for a lever and hole to deliver food pellets -trained rats to press the lever in order to get food; used shaping: rat first receives a food reward for being near the lever, then for touching the lever, and finally f
13、or pressing the lever-in the end, only rewarded for pressing the lever, process known as: differential reinforcement of successive approximationsContinuous vs. Partial Reinforcement-continuous consequence is delivered after every instance of the goal behavior; produces rapid learning and rapid extin
14、ction -partial intermittent, not all responses are reinforced; produces slow learning and slow extinctionFixed Interval (Reinforcement)-reinforcement is delivered based on a specified passage of time -ex: paycheck every other FridayVariable Interval (Reinforcement)-reinforcement is delivered after s
15、ome established period of time but it changes from one reinforcement to the next-ex: awaiting mail on Friday but the delivery time is different each week, you would check more often to see if it has arrived since you do not know exactly when it will get thereFixed Ratio(Reinforcement)-reinforcement
16、will be delivered after a specified number of desired responses-ex: being paid by an employer for every 7 toys assembled Variable Ratio(Reinforcement)-reinforcement will be delivered after some number of responses but the amount is not specified -ex: playing the lotteryLatent Learning -Edward Tolman
17、-learning that is not demonstrated until the subject is reinforced for doing so -research with rats and maze completion tasks showed that rats who had been exposed to a maze several times were more likely to run it efficiently and with few errors if there was a reinforcement in the goal boxOverjusti
18、fication Effect-predicts that if you begin to reinforce a behavior that the individual is already disposed to perform it may actually discourage the subject from continuing to do it-ex: reward for reading a certain number of books will stop once the reward is discontinuedModeling -much of what we le
19、arn comes from observation -if an adult is modeling a behavior a child is likely to imitate that model, especially if the adults behavior is reinforced in some wayChapter # 5: Learning and MemoryBanduras Bobo Doll experiment-Albert Bandura -adult models videotaped punching and kicking doll -children
20、 who watched the video were placed in same room as depicted in video imitated adult models, beating on Bobo-children in control group who did not view video played in same setting and did not behave in such waysStudied the role of observational learningSensory Memory-allows us to take in the plethor
21、a of sensory inputs that are available at any moment -brief functioning -info is not encoded and is lostShort-term Memory-twenty seconds-can hold about 7 +/- 2 items-maintained there by rehearsal: maintenance simple repetitionElaborative organization and understanding of the info that has been encod
22、ed in order to transfer the informationLong-Term Memory-lasting memories and knowledge-capable of permanent retention -semantically encoded -“do something” with incoming material through rehearsal, chunking, mnemonic elaboration, or a processing strategy Flashbulb Memory-very deep vivid memory in th
23、e form of a visual image associated with a particular emotionally arousing eventChunking -grouping items of information into units -used for phone numbers, social security numbers, bank cards-group digits into manageable segmentsMnemonic Devices-rely on the ability to make mental images to remember
24、-link part of it (image, way word sounds, etc.) to something already known-tie a set of images to a familiar place, mentally walk through familiar scene, retrieving images -create an image using “peg words”Encoding -shallow processing -simple rehearsal-attach meaning and place it in context- visuall
25、y, acoustically (ex: rhyming), semantically (meaning)Chapter # 5: Learning and MemoryRetroactive vs. Proactive Interference-retroactive interference: new memory interferes with old -proactive interference: old memory interferes with new ex: old address is blocked because new address interferes with
26、recallex: trying to remember a new phone number disrupted by the memory of an old phone numberIconic vs. Echoic Memory-iconic: visual, lasts for a few tenths of a second -echoic: auditory, lasts for 3-4 secondsImplicit vs. Explicit Memory-implicit memory: we remember something without knowing that w
27、e do; may need to be primed or cued to recall it -explicit memory: consciously declare that we knowLong term Potentiation-an increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation and possibly in the neutral basis for learning and memory, involving an increase in the efficiency with
28、which signals are sent across the synapses within neural networksState Dependent Memory-theory that one is more likely to recall details of something if one is in a similar emotional and physical state as when one was exposed to the events one is trying to recallstudy where you are planning on takin
29、g the exam!Theories Of Forgetting-Decay: fading/weakening of memories assumed to occur when memory traces become weak -Disuse: “Use it or lose it!”; theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrievedEncoding Failure-failure to store sufficient memory to form a usef
30、ul memoryPositive and Negative Transfer-Positive transfer: mastery of one task aids learning in another Ex: learning to ride a bike and learning to ride a motorcycle -Negative transfer: mastery of one task conflicts with learning anotherEx: backing out a car and backing out a trailer Tip of the Tong
31、ue Phenomena-retrieval problem -memory is “in there” but we just cant seem to pull it out because we lack cuesAnterograde vs. Retrograde Amnesia-anterograde amnesia: memory loss for information since the accident-retrograde amnesia: memory loss for information before the damage occurred Chapter # 5:
32、 Learning and MemoryEyewitness Testimony-influenced by expectancy or set-might unknowingly apply gender, racial, or place schemas in trying to reconstruct the events they witnessed-framing of questions influences how events are recalled (Elizabeth Loftus)Ivan Pavlov -studied digestive system of dogs
33、, noted dogs responded to previously neutral stimuli-presented meat powder which makes a dog salivate and previously neutral stimulus-used metronomes and other tones -present sound followed by meat powder led to salivation response in dogs -dog begins to salivate at sound of metronomeB.F. Skinner -p
34、ioneered the study of operant conditioning -ran many operant-conditioning experiments -“Skinner Box” apparatus -behavior is a series of behavior-reward pairings and cognition is not as important to learning process (psychologists abandoned this view)John Watson -with Rosalie Rayner demonstrated clas
35、sical conditioning with Little Albert-no fear of small animals but showed fear when steel bar banged w/ a hammer-presented child with a rat and banged the steel bar at the same time = child cried -Albert cried any time he was presented with the rat even w/o the noise -became afraid of other fluffy w
36、hite objectsAlbert Bandura -famous study in social or observational learning; Bobo doll studies-response-reward relationship not necessary for observational learning -for observational learning to occur: learner must pay attention to the behavior in question, retention of observed behavior (must be
37、remembered), motivation for the learner to produce behavior, potential for reproduction must existHerman Ebbinghaus-postulated in his “forgetting curve” that we have rapid decay of memory for nonsense syllables but that decay will flatten out at 20-30% in long term retention (it doesnt all fade)-info forgotten because of interference (proactive and retroactive)
