1、流行病学教学课件下载-样章.ppt 流 行 病 学 EPIDEMIOLOGY,第一章 绪论 Chapter One Introduction,2018/9/14,2,第一节 概述 Introduction,流行病学 Epidemiology 是一门发展十分迅速的学科。早期的流行病学重点是研究人类疾病尤其是传染病的分布和频率,以后扩展到研究疾病的分布和频率的决定因素。当代著名流行病学家Rothman认为:病因和预防是一个硬币的两面。现代流行病学则更强调了流行病学作为应用学科在预防中的应用,以及作为方法学在医学中所起的不可替代的作用。流行病学是公共卫生的核心科学。它不仅是预防医学中的主导学科,也是
2、现代医学的一门重要的基础学科。流行病学是扎根于生物学、逻辑学和哲学的一门科学。,2018/9/14,3,第一节 概述 Introduction,Definition The scientific study of epidemics and epidemic diseases, especially the factors that influence the incidence, distribution, and control of infectious diseases; the study of disease occurrence in human populations. The
3、 statistical study of the distribution and determinants of disease in populations. The study of a disease that deals with how many people have it, where they are, how many new cases develop, and how to control the disease.,2018/9/14,4,第一节 概述 Introduction,Definition Epidemiology is the science devote
4、d to the statistical study of categories of persons and the patterns of diseases from which they suffer, with the aim of determining the events or circumstances causing these diseases. Study of the distribution of disease, or other health-related states and events in human populations, as related to
5、 age, sex, occupation, ethnicity, and economic status in order to identify and alleviate health problems and promote better health.,2018/9/14,5,第一节 概述 Introduction,Definition Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, a
6、nd the application of this study to control of health problems (Last 2001). Epidemiology is the scientific study of factors affecting the health and illness of individuals and populations, and, in this capacity, it serves as the foundation and logic of interventions made in the interest of the publi
7、cs health.,2018/9/14,6,第一节 概述 Introduction,流行病学定义为:“流行病学是研究疾病和健康状态在人群中的分布及影响因素,以及制订和评价预防、控制和消灭疾病及促进健康的策略与措施的科学”。 该定义的基本内涵有四点:研究对象是人群,是研究所关注的具有某种特征的人群; 它不仅研究各种疾病,而且研究健康状态;研究重点是疾病和健康状态的分布及其影响因素;最终目的是为控制和消灭疾病及促进健康提供科学的决策依据。,2018/9/14,7,第一节 概述 Introduction,目前国际上比较通用的流行病学定义为:“研究特定人群中疾病和健康状态的分布及其决定因素,以及防制
8、疾病和促进健康的策略与措施的科学”(JM Last, 1995)。“流行病学是公共卫生的基础学科,研究特定人群中与健康有关的状态的分布和决定因素,并将研究结果应用于卫生问题的控制中去。”该定义与国内的定义基本是一致的。 近年来,国内外有些人提出与人类健康相关的“公共卫生事件”(public health events), 甚至超出卫生事件范畴的自然和社会问题,如全球气候变暖、厄尔尼诺与拉尼那现象、人口“爆炸”与人口老龄化等现象。所有这些均是不可忽视的影响疾病和健康状态及其分布的重要因素。,2018/9/14,8,第一节 概述 Introduction,二、流行病学简史 Development
9、History of Epidemiology 流行病学是人类在与多种流行性疾病,特别是传染病做斗争的实践中逐渐形成和发展起来的。中外古代医学对疾病的流行均有朴素的描述。现在已难于追溯到是谁最先使用epidemiology一词了,1802年Madrid西班牙疾病流行史一书中首次出现了epidemiologia一词,而epidemic(流行)一词希腊著名医生Hippocrates就已曾用过。此后,流行病学主要经历了三个阶段。,2018/9/14,9,第一节 概述 Introduction,Hippocrates (hih POK ruh teez) lived 400 years before
10、the birth of Christ. He is known as the father of medicine because many of the things he discovered are still practiced today.,2018/9/14,10,第一节 概述 Introduction,During the time when Hippocrates lived, people were very superstitious. * They believed there were four fluids in the body which matched fou
11、r elements; earth, air, fire and water. They would carry sick people to the temple because they thought the god of medicine, Aesculapius (es kyoo LAY pe us) could heal them. They would say magic words over the patient to try and heal them. Hippocrates taught that diseases came from natural causes. H
12、e had observed many patients and carefully recorded their symptoms and the way their illnesses developed. He would look at the color of the skin, and how the eyes looked. He would look for fevers and chills. He described many illnesses including pneumonia, * tetanus, * tuberculosis, * arthritis, * m
13、umps, * and malaria *.,2018/9/14,11,第一节 概述 Introduction,He told his students to carefully observe their patients and to learn from the things they had observed. He said the human body could heal itself and could return itself to good health. The patient was given something to relieve pain, but nothi
14、ng else was done. He told his patients they should eat a moderate amount of food; not too much and not too little. A moderate amount of exercise was recommended. Patients were encouraged to walk for exercise. Doctors were told to make sure their hands were clean before they treated patients. He said
15、 the operating room should be well lighted and look cheerful. His thought patients in good spirits would heal faster. Physicians should be men of honor, according to Hippocrates. He encouraged them to work as hard as possible for the good of the sick.,2018/9/14,12,第一节 概述 Introduction,16世纪中叶,1543年人体解
16、剖学奠定,生理学(1628年)迅速发展,以及列文霍克(Leeuwenhoek A) 发明显微镜后,人们开始认识了病原,琴纳(Edward Jenna)发明牛痘接种法(smallpox vaccination),成为18世纪预防医学的一项重大成就。 第一阶段,19世纪中叶,流行病学学科开始形成。贫穷和饥荒造成的营养不良、恶劣的环境、瘟疫(天花smallpox、鼠疫plague、霍乱cholera、麻疹measles等)是当时的时代特点,这一时期流行病学研究主要以研究传染病的人群现象为主。以50年代认识了霍乱(cholera)的传播方式为标志,流行病学有了长足的发展。,2018/9/14,13,2
17、018/9/14,14,第一节 概述 Introduction,Leeuwenhoek, Antony van b. Oct. 24, 1632, Delft, Neth.-d. Aug. 26, 1723, Delft), Dutch microscopist who was the first to observe bacteria and protozoa. His researches on lower animals refuted the doctrine of spontaneous generation, and his observations helped lay the
18、foundations for the sciences of bacteriology and protozoology.,2018/9/14,15,第一节 概述 Introduction,Edward Jenner (1749-1823) In the eighteenth century, before Jenner, smallpox was a killer disease, as widespread as cancer or heart disease in the twentieth century but with the difference that the majori
19、ty of its victims were infants and young children. In 1980, as a result of Jenners discovery, the World Health Assembly世界卫生大会officially declared “the world and its peoples“ free from endemic smallpox.,2018/9/14,16,第一节 概述 Introduction,2018/9/14,17,第一节 概述 Introduction,19世纪末20世纪初,人们从战胜天花、鼠疫、霍乱等烈性传染病的斗争
20、中认识到影响人类健康的因素,不仅包括人体内在因素(遗传因素、生理生化反应) 外环境的因素(生物性因素。并将三者视为一个整体。以其制定综合预防措施和对策,预防疾病,促进健康,提高生命质量。 1948年联合国世界卫生组织(World Health Organization, WHO)成立,国际间卫生工作的合作和交流开始得到发展。WHO在指导协调查国际卫生工作中取得了相当的成就。其中最令人瞩目的有三大历史功绩。其一是1948年在宪章中对健康概念作了界定,其二是1979年全球根除天花,其三是1977年在第30届世界卫生大会上提出“Health for all by the year 2000”。197
21、8年在前苏联阿拉木图(Alma-Ata)会议上,WHO又发表了阿拉木图宣言,明确指出人人享有卫生保健的关键措施是初级卫生保健。其目标在于要使全体人民,不分国家、地区、民族、性别、宗教,每个人都能方便地享有基本卫生保健服务,最终实现“使所有的人都尽可能的达到最高保健水平”的WHO的宗旨。,2018/9/14,18,第一节 概述 Introduction,第二阶段,始于20世纪40年代。由于社会实践刺激了流行病学理论的发展,且使人们对于流行病学概念的理解迅速深化。例如,20世纪50年代早期,吸烟与肺癌关系的研究具有里程碑的意义,因为它一方面阐明了吸烟与肺癌的关系,另一方面证明了病例对照研究方法的巨
22、大功效和效率,为流行病学的病因研究开创了新局面。 20世纪40年代后期开始的美国弗雷明汉研究(Framingham Study)资料的分析过程,刺激了当今广泛使用的多变量分析方法 多元Logistic回归分析的发展。随着社会的发展,非传染性疾病对人类健康的危害日趋严重,流行病学的研究范围自然就扩大到非传染性疾病。着重以退行性疾病为研究对象,包括心脑血管疾病、糖尿病、风湿病和肿瘤等及与之相联系的社会、环境、行为、习惯和心理问题。流行病学的主要原理体系只是从此刚刚开始形成并逐渐得到了广泛应用。,2018/9/14,19,第一节 概述 Introduction,第三阶段,20世纪80年代以来,医学模
23、式由生物医学模式(biological medical model)发展为生物心理社会医学模式(bio-psychic social medical model),由于工业化进程加速,社会经济发生了巨大进步,如何提高健康水平和生活质量以及延长人们的寿命等问题提到日程上来。除了研究疾病以外,还要研究管理、决策与评价,还要考虑人口学特征的变化、社会环境的变化等,将环境与人、社会与保健纳入研究范畴,研究内容包括环境污染、酒精中毒、吸烟与健康、吸毒、犯罪、心理卫生与健康、健康保护等。流行病学研究涉及更多的心理和社会因素,流行病学的方法学也随之不断发展。,2018/9/14,20,第二节 流行病学研究方
24、法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,Cross-sectional studyProportional mortality Descriptive Observational rate study Study Study Ecological study Epidemiological Case-control study AnalyticalMethods Cohort study Studyof Study Clinical trials Experimental Field trialStudy Community intervention tria
25、l Theoretical Theoretical epidemiologyEpidemiology Mathematical epidemiology卢智泉 06.02.18 Fig. 1-1 A Sketch Map of Epidemiology Methods of Studies,2018/9/14,21,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,一、观察性研究或非实验性研究 Observational Studies or Non-experimental Studies流行病学是在人群中进行研究的,由于伦理和资源的限制,研究者
26、不能或不能全部掌握或控制研究对象的暴露及其他条件。大多数情况下只能进行非实验研究(non-experimental study),即观察性研究(observational study)。观察性研究检查结局与危险性之间的联系,包括描述性研究、描述疾病的频率和模式,以及分析性研究、研究疾病的决定因素和危险性。观察法是流行病学研究的基本方法。,2018/9/14,22,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,(一)横断面研究 Cross-sectional study 横断面研究为一个时间断面上的研究,研究对象包括确定人群 中所有的个体或这个人
27、群中一个有代表性的样本,通常暴露信 息和疾病信息同时确定,是一个时点上人群疾病与暴露情况的 “快照”。根据暴露和疾病情况将人群同时分类是横断面研究方 法的本质。,Participants of study,Present,Present,Specific population,Investigation,Specific patients,Healthier,To descript the distribution of disease and health in specific population in at a given time,Fig. 1-2 A Sketch Map of C
28、ross-sectional Study,卢智泉 06.02.18,Analysis of results,2018/9/14,23,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,Cross-sectional study Definition A cross-sectional study is a study of a group of people at one point in time to determine whether a risk factor or a level of a risk factor is associate
29、d with the occurrence of a disease. Because the disease outcome and the risk factor (eg, nutrient intake) are measured at the same time, a cross-sectional study provides a “snapshot“ view of their relationship. Cross-sectional studies cannot provide information about causality.,2018/9/14,24,第二节 流行病学
30、研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,(二)比例死亡比研究 Proportional mortality ratio study, PMR 该方法的研究对象只包括死亡的对象,将已有一项或多项特殊死亡原因的研究对象的死亡比例,与相应未暴露的研究对象的死亡比例做比较。该结果作为暴露的效应的量度,常缩写为PMR,即比例死亡比。比例死亡比研究的对象在研究时均已死亡,因此没有“队列”和“随访”的问题。比例死亡比研究的理论基础是:如果某种暴露能导致或防止某种致死性疾病发生,则在暴露的死亡病例中死于该疾病者的比例会比无暴露的死亡病例中死于该病的比例成比例地高或低,P
31、MR描述的是在一定的时间里,某暴露人群中某种死因的比例是否高于或低于非暴露人群中该死因的比例。,研究人群中观察死亡例数(O) PMR 标准人口预期死亡数(E),2018/9/14,25,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,(三)生态学研究 Ecological study 如果进行一项研究,分析单位不是个人而是一组人,这样的研究叫做生态学研究。研究的人群组可以是学校的班级、工厂、城镇,甚至国家的整个人群。唯一的要求是要有所研究人群暴露和疾病的两类信息,借以比较各组人群中暴露与疾病是否相关,因此又叫相关性研究(correlation s
32、tudy)。,2018/9/14,26,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,Cohort Study DefinitionAn epidemiology study that observes a large Group of people over a period of time. Within the cohort, morbidity or mortality rates can be calculated for group members with different exposures.A prospective inv
33、estigation of the factors that might cause a disorder. A cohort (group) of persons who do not have the outcome of interest but who are exposed to the putative cause are compared to a cohort who are also free of the outcome but have not been exposed to the putative cause. Both cohorts are followed to
34、 compare the incidence of the outcome of interest.,2018/9/14,27,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,Participants Of study,Exposed group,Un- exposed,Disease Death,Disease Death,Normal,Normal,Prospective study,To compare,the exposed,between,tow groups,difference,To follow-up,Present,Future
35、,Randomized block,Fig. 1-3 A Sketch Map of Cohort Study,Normal,卢智泉 06.02.18,2018/9/14,28,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,Participants Of study,Smoking group,Un- smoking,Lung cancer,Lung cancer,Normal,Normal,Prospective study,To compare,the disease,between,tow groups,difference,To fol
36、low-up,Present,Future,Randomized block,Fig. 1-4 A Sketch Map of Cohort Study,Normal,卢智泉 06.02.18,2018/9/14,29,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,A retrospective observational study in which investigators identify a group of patients with a specified outcome (cases) and a group of patien
37、ts without the specified outcome (controls). Investigators then compare the cases and the controls to determine possible factors which can be linked to the outcome.,2018/9/14,30,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,Participants Of Study,Cases,Controls,Exposed,Un- exposed,Exposed,Un- expos
38、ed,To compare,the exposed,difference,between,tow groups,Present,Past exposed history,Retrospective study,Randomized block,Patients,Fig. 1-5 A Sketch Map of Case-control Study,卢智泉 06.02.18,2018/9/14,31,第二节 流行病学研究方法 Methods of Epidemiological Studies,Participants Of Study,Lung cancers,No-lung cancers,
39、Smoking,No- smoking,Smoking,No- smoking,To compare,the smoking,difference,between,tow groups,Present,Past exposed history,Retrospective study,Randomized block,Patients,Fig. 1-6 A Sketch Map of Case-control Study,卢智泉 06.02.18,Smoking-Lung cancer,2018/9/14,32,二、实验性研究 Experimental Study,Experimental Ep
40、idemiology The third epidemiologic method is the experimental approach. A hypothesis is developed and an experimental model is constructed in which one or more selected factors are manipulated. The effect of the manipulation will either confirm or disprove the hypothesis. An example is the evaluatio
41、n of the effect of a new drug on a disease. A group of people with the disease is identified, and some members are randomly selected to receive the drug. If the only difference between the two is use of the drug, the clinical differences between the groups should reflect the effectiveness of the dru
42、g.,2018/9/14,33,二、实验性研究 Experimental Study,按研究者设计要求,将研究对象随机分组,人为施加或消除某种干预因素或措施,以观察对人群某病频率变化的影响及评价预防或治疗措施的效果,可作为病因干预试验验证病因假设。 (一)临床试验 Clinical trials 以病人为研究对象,随机分成实验组和对照组,实验组给予干预措施,对照组给予安慰剂,常用于评价某种药物或某种疗法的效果,其设计模式见图1-4。,2018/9/14,34,二、实验性研究 Experimental Study,卢智泉 06.02.18图1-7 临床试验研究结构示意图 Fig. 1-7 A S
43、ketch Map of Experimental Study,研究对象 (病人),实验组,对照组,有效,无效,无效,有效,比较疗效效果,ParticipantsPatients,Randomized allocation,Experiment group,Control group,Effectiveness,Effectiveness,Inefficacy,Inefficacy,To compare the difference of therapeutic effectiveness in tow groups,2018/9/14,35,二、实验性研究 Experimental Stud
44、y,(二)现场试验 Field trials 现场试验 以尚未患病的人作为研究对象,接受处理或某种预防措施的基本单位与临床试验一样是个体,而不是群体,一般为未患病的健康或高危人群中的个体,如疫苗的预防性试验,也称人群干预试验。,2018/9/14,36,二、实验性研究 Experimental Study,卢智泉 06.02.18 图 1-8 现场试验研究的结构示意图 Fig. 1-8 A Sketch Map of Field Trial Study,有效,无效,无效,有效,比较 预防措施效果,Populationat risk,Randomized allocation,Experimen
45、t group,Control group,Effectiveness,Effectiveness,Inefficacy,Inefficacy,To compare the difference of preventive effectiveness in tow groups,研究对象,实验组,对照组,2018/9/14,37,二、实验性研究 Experimental Study,(三)社区干预试验 Community intervention trial 该研究对象是群体而不是个体。 如膳食的干预试验,水中提高氟的含量预防龋齿的干预试验,选择整个社区进行试验,干预措施分配给该群体的每个人,
46、有时亦可选择较小的人群进行干预,如饮食干预以家庭为单位,家庭中的每个成员都接受了干预措施。 该试验不考虑接受氟化物的社区人群是否随机分配。,2018/9/14,38,二、实验性研究 Experimental Study,卢智泉 06.02.18图 1-9 社区干预试验研究的结构示意图 Fig. 1-9 A Sketch Map of Community Intervention Trial,有效,无效,无效,有效,比较 预防措施效果,General population,Randomized allocation,Experiment group,Control group,Effective
47、ness,Effectiveness,Inefficacy,Inefficacy,To compare the difference of preventive effectiveness in tow groups,研究对象,实验组 纽堡,对照组 金镇,0.151.2ppm,0.05ppm,2018/9/14,39,二、实验性研究 Experimental Study,(四)类实验 Quasi -experiment,semi-experiment 一个完整的流行病学实验性研究应具备下列四个基本特点,即设立对照(to set up control)随机分组(randomized block)
48、、人为干预(intervention trial )、前瞻性追踪(prospective study)以及盲法试验(blinding trial)如果一项实验缺少其中的一个或几个特征,这种实验就称为类实验,实际工作中类实验多指不能满足随机分配的原则时所进行的实验研究。,2018/9/14,40,三、理论性研究 Theoretical Epidemiology,(一)理论流行病学 Theoretical Epidemiology 理论流行病学也称数学流行病学(mathematical epidemiology),是指将流行病学调查所获得的数据建立有关的教学模型,如RRIeI0,ORadbc等,或
49、用计算机仿真进行理论研究。 (二)方法的研究 Study of Method 流行病学的理论与方法也需要不断地发展与完善,随着科学的发展,方法的研究也不断地产生,如1976年英国的Glass 应用Meta 分析法进行流行病学的研究。,2018/9/14,41,四、三种常见的观察性研究间的联系 Association among Three Observation Studies,最常见的观察流行病学方法为横断面研究(cross-sectional study)、病例对照研究(case-control study)和队列研究(cohort study) ,三者之间的内在联系如图1-10所示,学习三者之间的关系会对方法本身有更深层次的理解。,