1、rapid development of the market economy environment to explore public servants duty consumption monetization reform has provided a good foundation. The socialization of rear service work has been launched, and rapid progress in some places and departments, duty consumption monetization of carrier an
2、d approach to management has been resolved. Third, in recent years, exploring the monetization of duty consumption has made some progress, have gained some experience and can provide reference to the comprehensive reform of the system of public servants duty consumption further. Implementing an “hon
3、est canteen“, standardize official entertaining management; enhancing the telecommunication expense management; elimination of County travel and countryside subsidies; research “village officials“ capitalization management of corporate spending, and so on. Finally, group .18 session to be held in Be
4、ijing from November 9, 2013 to 12th. 35 years ago blew the third plenary session of the reform and opening up in the spring breeze, changed, affect the world; today, 35 years later, in the eyes of the nation and the world expect, again to reform mark China, ushered in the 18 session. XI General Secr
5、etary pointed out that Chinas reform has entered a crucial period and the Sham Shui Po District, must be based on greater political courage and wisdom, lose no time in deepening reform in important fields. Dares to crack a hard nut, dares to question the Rapids, which dares to break the barrier of i
6、deas, and dare to benefit cure barriers. Deepening reform and opening up is on schedule to achieve institutional safeguards of the moderately well-off. Under the “five in one“ the General layout of socialist modernization requirements, 18 session of the decision was a “five in one“ and the improveme
7、nt of overall scheme of reform, will promote an integrated and coordinated economic, political, cultural, social and ecological civilization construction of the five reforms and the partys construction in the area of institutional reform. The “five in one“ programme is to achieve a comprehensive ref
8、orm of institutional guarantees for objectives of build a well-off society, the smooth progress of the construction of a well-off society and reform the objectives of the programme. One, holding time and place importance on November 9, 2013 to the 18 session of the 12th Beijing since 1978, 35, have
9、been 7 plenary session, each time on major issues of political and economic life of the country has made important deployment. In accordance with PRC political practice, often at every session of the CPC Central Committee in a plenary session was held immediately after the partys Congress, on the th
10、eme “personnel“, discussing election Centrals top leaders, such as the election of the Standing Committee of the political Bureau, through the Central Committee members, decisions, such as members of the Central Military Commission. The second plenary session, is held in two sessions before the gene
11、ral election, mainly to discuss a new State personnel issues. But by the thirdplenary session, each session of the Central Committee of national institutions and personnel problems have been arranged, you can concentrate on national development and reforms. Previous plenary session is often branded
12、with a central leading collective, often by looking at the third plenum of the initiative to found the current central leadership collective governance characteristics. From the analysis of the process of economic reform in China, plenary session, 12 session, 14, 16 plenary session have programmatic
13、 meaning, respectively, marking the four stages of Chinas economic reform, and that the start-up phase of reform, reform, construction phase and perfecting the Socialist market economy framework stage of socialist market economy. Previous plenary session topics proposed to the third plenary session
14、of “taking class struggle as the key link,“ shifted to socialist modernization; 12 session marked the change from rural to urban, established with public ownership as the Foundation of a planned commodity economy; 13 session at a time when both the old and the new system change, governance and recti
15、fy the economic order; 14 . Fair and efficient and authoritative Socialist judicial system, safeguard the peoples interests. Legal authority to uphold the Constitution, deepening the reform of administrative law enforcement, ensure that the right to exercise judicial power independently and impartia
16、lly according to law the prosecution, perfecting the running mechanism of judicial power, improve the system of judicial protection of human rights. Plenary session, Affairs the right to adhere to the system, and let the people authority to let the power run in the Sun, is shut up in a cage of the s
17、ystem power policy. Decision Science, implementation should be constructed strong, supervise the running of powerful system, improve the system of punishing and preventing corruption, promoting political integrity, and strive to achieve cadres honest and Government integrity, clean politics. To form
18、 a scientific and effective coordination of power restriction and mechanisms to strengthen anti-corruption institutional innovation and institutional protection, sound improvement style normal system. Plenary session, building a socialist culture in China, enhancing national cultural soft power, mus
19、t adhere to the orientation of advanced Socialist culture, adhere to the development of Socialist culture with Chinese characteristics, adhere to the people-centred work-oriented, further deepening reform of culture. To improve the cultural management system, establish and improve the modern market
20、system and building modern public cultural service system, improve the level of culture opening. Plenary session, achieving development results more equitable benefit of all people, we must speed up reform of social programs and solve the issues of concern to the people the most direct and real inte
21、rest, and better meet the needs of the people. To deepen education reform, improve institutional mechanisms for the语言学概论复习题一、 名词解释言语：言语是利用语言进行交际的行为和结果。征候：音位变体：音位变体是指处于互补关系中的各个音素被看成同一音位在不同位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式。音步：语流中大致等距离出现的若干（北京话和英语为两个）音节的节奏单元。词法：指的是包括词类和各类词的构成、词形变化的规律和类型。句法：指的是短语、句子的结构规律和类型。语法学分词法和
22、句法两个部分，词法的研究范围包括词类和各类词的构成、词性变化（形态） 。句法的研究范围是短语、句子的结构规律和类型。词缀又分为屈折词缀和派生词缀两类。派生词缀：派生词缀是加在词干上构成新词的词缀。这种构成新词的方法叫派生法，所构成的词叫派生词。派生词缀又根据在单词中的位置分为前缀和后缀两类。屈折词缀：屈折词缀加在词干的后边，不构成新词，传递不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如数、时、格等。如 books 中的-s 是屈折词缀，传递复数；wiser 中的-er 是屈折词缀，传递比较级概念，等。孤立语：又称分析语或词根语，这类语言的特点在于其一般不是通过词的内部形态变化（又称作屈折变化）来表达语法的作用，
23、而是通过独立的虚词和固定的词序来表达语法意义，而且一般而言，分析语缺乏多数的格变化。汉语、彝语、壮语、苗语、越南语都是孤立语。需要注意的是， “孤立语言”与“ 孤立语 ”是不相同的， “孤立语言”指的是与任何其它的语言不存在亲属关系的语言。屈折语：是以词形变化作为表示语法关系的主要手段的语言；特点是有丰富的词形变化来表示词与词之间的关系；以俄语、英语为代表。黏着语：一种语言的语法类型，通过在词根的前中后粘贴不同的词尾来实现语法功能。日语、土耳其语 是典型的黏着语。复综语：按类型分类法分类的语言的一种。特点是把主语、宾语和其它语法项结合到动词词干上，以构成一个单独的词，但表达一个句子的意思。词义
24、：是词的内容，是主观主体对客观事物现象的反映，包含着人们对客观事物各种特点的认识。词义所反映的是有关客观事物现象的一般的或本质的特点特点：概括性一般性、模糊性、全民性。上下位义：词义的上下位关系指词义反映的现象之间具有包含和被包含的关系：上位义更具概括性，所反映的现实现象比下位义多。语义角色：语义角色是根据句中名词与动词的语义关系而抽象出来的，它们反映了人们对古往今来变动不居的人类经验中“物体”与“动程”多种多样具体关系的模式化抽象。基本语义角色有：施事、受事、与事、主事、致事。外围语义角色主要有：工具、方所、时间。真值：从语言和思维的关系看，词义表达的是“概念” ，句义表达的则是说话者对现实
25、世界中某个现象或事件的“判断” 。句子所表达的“判断”是否真实地反映了现实世界中真实的现象或事件，语义学中看作是“句子真假”或“句子的真值”问题。蕴涵：通俗的说，句子真值的蕴涵关系就是，从一个句子的句义一定可以推导出另一个句子的句义，反向推导却不成立。句义间的蕴涵关系直接与词义的上下位关系相关。 （例：a、李明感冒了。b、李明病了。 ）rapid development of the market economy environment to explore public servants duty consumption monetization reform has provided a
26、good foundation. The socialization of rear service work has been launched, and rapid progress in some places and departments, duty consumption monetization of carrier and approach to management has been resolved. Third, in recent years, exploring the monetization of duty consumption has made some pr
27、ogress, have gained some experience and can provide reference to the comprehensive reform of the system of public servants duty consumption further. Implementing an “honest canteen“, standardize official entertaining management; enhancing the telecommunication expense management; elimination of Coun
28、ty travel and countryside subsidies; research “village officials“ capitalization management of corporate spending, and so on. Finally, group .18 session to be held in Beijing from November 9, 2013 to 12th. 35 years ago blew the third plenary session of the reform and opening up in the spring breeze,
29、 changed, affect the world; today, 35 years later, in the eyes of the nation and the world expect, again to reform mark China, ushered in the 18 session. XI General Secretary pointed out that Chinas reform has entered a crucial period and the Sham Shui Po District, must be based on greater political
30、 courage and wisdom, lose no time in deepening reform in important fields. Dares to crack a hard nut, dares to question the Rapids, which dares to break the barrier of ideas, and dare to benefit cure barriers. Deepening reform and opening up is on schedule to achieve institutional safeguards of the
31、moderately well-off. Under the “five in one“ the General layout of socialist modernization requirements, 18 session of the decision was a “five in one“ and the improvement of overall scheme of reform, will promote an integrated and coordinated economic, political, cultural, social and ecological civ
32、ilization construction of the five reforms and the partys construction in the area of institutional reform. The “five in one“ programme is to achieve a comprehensive reform of institutional guarantees for objectives of build a well-off society, the smooth progress of the construction of a well-off s
33、ociety and reform the objectives of the programme. One, holding time and place importance on November 9, 2013 to the 18 session of the 12th Beijing since 1978, 35, have been 7 plenary session, each time on major issues of political and economic life of the country has made important deployment. In a
34、ccordance with PRC political practice, often at every session of the CPC Central Committee in a plenary session was held immediately after the partys Congress, on the theme “personnel“, discussing election Centrals top leaders, such as the election of the Standing Committee of the political Bureau,
35、through the Central Committee members, decisions, such as members of the Central Military Commission. The second plenary session, is held in two sessions before the general election, mainly to discuss a new State personnel issues. But by the thirdplenary session, each session of the Central Committe
36、e of national institutions and personnel problems have been arranged, you can concentrate on national development and reforms. Previous plenary session is often branded with a central leading collective, often by looking at the third plenum of the initiative to found the current central leadership c
37、ollective governance characteristics. From the analysis of the process of economic reform in China, plenary session, 12 session, 14, 16 plenary session have programmatic meaning, respectively, marking the four stages of Chinas economic reform, and that the start-up phase of reform, reform, construct
38、ion phase and perfecting the Socialist market economy framework stage of socialist market economy. Previous plenary session topics proposed to the third plenary session of “taking class struggle as the key link,“ shifted to socialist modernization; 12 session marked the change from rural to urban, e
39、stablished with public ownership as the Foundation of a planned commodity economy; 13 session at a time when both the old and the new system change, governance and rectify the economic order; 14 . Fair and efficient and authoritative Socialist judicial system, safeguard the peoples interests. Legal
40、authority to uphold the Constitution, deepening the reform of administrative law enforcement, ensure that the right to exercise judicial power independently and impartially according to law the prosecution, perfecting the running mechanism of judicial power, improve the system of judicial protection
41、 of human rights. Plenary session, Affairs the right to adhere to the system, and let the people authority to let the power run in the Sun, is shut up in a cage of the system power policy. Decision Science, implementation should be constructed strong, supervise the running of powerful system, improv
42、e the system of punishing and preventing corruption, promoting political integrity, and strive to achieve cadres honest and Government integrity, clean politics. To form a scientific and effective coordination of power restriction and mechanisms to strengthen anti-corruption institutional innovation
43、 and institutional protection, sound improvement style normal system. Plenary session, building a socialist culture in China, enhancing national cultural soft power, must adhere to the orientation of advanced Socialist culture, adhere to the development of Socialist culture with Chinese characterist
44、ics, adhere to the people-centred work-oriented, further deepening reform of culture. To improve the cultural management system, establish and improve the modern market system and building modern public cultural service system, improve the level of culture opening. Plenary session, achieving develop
45、ment results more equitable benefit of all people, we must speed up reform of social programs and solve the issues of concern to the people the most direct and real interest, and better meet the needs of the people. To deepen education reform, improve institutional mechanisms for the预设（语义）：通俗的说，如果一个
46、句子的肯定和否定两种形式都以另一句子的肯定式为前提，则另一句子是该句的预设。 （例：a、他的哥哥昨天回来了/没回来。b、他有哥哥。 ）预设（语用）：句子传递信息所依赖的、说话者设定为自己与受话者都知道的那些知识。语境：1、物理语境（“言语现场” ）2、话语语境：一个连贯的言语事件中前面或后面的话语。3、说话者和受话者的背景知识。话题：一个句子中句义信息所关涉的那个实体（“信息的基点” ）是句子的“话题”，针对话题展开的句子其他部分是“说明” 。焦点：句子中说话者所认为的受话者所不知道的信息。直接言语行为：由基本句型或施为句明确体现出来的言语行为。间接言语行为：现实中的话语，常常具有超越直接言语
47、行为的其他的言语行为功能，称为间接言语行为。字符：所有文字的最小单元。自源文字：在某种语言的基础上自发产生并逐步完善的文字。社会方言：社会中的人群由于性别、年龄、文化程度、经济状况和社会分工的不同而分化的言语社团，各个言语社团的语言是在全民语言基础上产生的各有自己特点的语言分支或语言变体，这就是所谓的社会方言。亲属语言：从一种语言分化出来的、存在于社会完全分化条件下的、说话人认同为不同语言的地域分支，叫做“亲属语言” 。如拉丁语随着古罗马帝国的崩溃，发展成法语、意大利语、西班牙语等独立的语言。社会方言、地域方言、亲属方言是同一语言因社会分化状况不同而造成的语言分化程度不同的三种形式。谱系分类：
48、根据语言是否来自同一语言的分化及分化的辈分等级而对语言做出的分类，叫做语言的“谱系分类” 。语言联盟：一片区域内的若干语言在语音、语法结构类型上都十分相似（“系统感染” ） ，但各个语言仍保持着相当数量自己语言的核心词根，这被称为“语言联盟” 。语言替换：如果若干民族在地域上比邻而居，接触极为密切但不平衡；则经过长期的双语或多语并存阶段后，各语言相对平衡状态就会被打破，经济文化和人口上占优势的民族的语言会替换其他民族的语言，成为唯一的胜利者，这就是语言替换。被替换的语言不再使用，只在优势语言中留下自己的一些特征，就是所谓的“底层残留” 。民族共同语：随着社会的发展，特别是广播电视等大众媒体充分
49、发展后，通用书面语发展成为更高级形式的民族共同语或国家共同语。克里奥耳语：两种或几种语言混合而成的临时交际语叫做“洋泾浜” 。如果后来作为母语传给后代，就称作混合语，也叫“克里奥尔语” 。按照语言接触的不同结果，语言接触可以分为不同的类型。五种主要类型：1、不成系统的词汇借用；2、语言联盟与系统感染；3、语言替换与底层残留；4、通用书面语、民族共同语进入方言或民族语层次；5、洋泾浜和混合语。类推：语法中有齐整划一的趋势，是语法演变中经常起作用的力量，叫做“类推作用” 。语法中有齐整划一的趋势和抗拒这种趋势的矛盾。语法化：语法演变的一种反复出现的常见途径是语法化，即指语言系统中一些原来有实在意义的实词在语法演变中变为只表示语法意义的成分。 （实词虚化）rapid development of the market economy environment to explore public servants duty consumption monetization reform has provided a good foundation. The socialization of rear service work has been launched, and rapid
