1、目 录第 1 章 导 言第 2 章 音 位 学第 3 章 形 态 学第 4 章 句 法 学第 5 章 语 义 学第 6 章 语 用 学第 7 章 语 言 变 化第 8 章 语 言 与 社 会第 9 章 语 言 与 文 化第 1 0 章 语 言 习 得第 1 1 章 第 二 语 言 习 得第 1 2 章 语 言 与 大 脑第 1 章 导 言1 . Ho w d o y o u in terp ret th e fo llo win g d efin itio n o f lin g u istics: Lin g u istics isth e scien tific stu d y o f l
2、an g u ag e.Key : Lin g u istics is a scien tific stu d y o f lan g u ag e b ecau se it fo llo ws th emeth o d o lo g y o f o th er scien tific stu d y :First o f all, it is b ased o n fu ll an d sy stematic co llectio n an d in v estig atio n o flin g u istic d ata, wh ich d isp lay so me similarit
3、ies, an d g en eralizatio n s are mad eab o u t th em.Th en lin g u ists fo rmu late so me h y p o th eses ab o u t th e lan g u ag e stru ctu re. Th eh y p o th eses th u s fo rmed h av e to b e ch eck ed rep eated ly ag ain st th e o b serv edfacts to fu lly p ro v e th eir v alid ity . In lin g u
4、 istics, as in an y o th er d iscip lin e,d ata an d th eo ry stan d in a d ialectical co mp lemen tatio n , th at is, a th eo rywith o u t th e su p p o rt o f d ata can h ard ly claim v alid ity , an d d ata with o u t b ein gex p lain ed b y so me th eo ry remain a mu d d led mass o f th in g s.2
5、 . Wh at are th e majo r b ran ch es o f lin g u istics? Wh at d o es each o f th em stu d y ?Key : Lin g u istics in clu d es Micro -Lin g u istics an d Macro -Lin g u istics.(1 ) Bran ch es o f Micro -Lin g u istics: Ph o n etics: it stu d ies th e so u n d s u sed in lin g u istic co mmu n icatio
6、 n ; Ph o n o lo g y : it stu d ies h o w so u n d s are p u t to g eth er an d u sed to co n v eymean in g in co mmu n icatio n ; Mo rp h o lo g y : it stu d ies th e way in wh ich lin g u istic sy mb o ls rep resen tin gso u n d s are arran g ed an d co mb in ed to fo rm wo rd s; Sy n tax : it stu
7、 d ies th e ru les wh ich g o v ern h o w wo rd s are co mb in ed tofo rm g rammatically p ermissib le sen ten ces in lan g u ag es; Seman tics: it stu d ies mean in g co n v ey ed b y lan g u ag e; Prag matics: it stu d ies th e mean in g in th e co n tex t o f lan g u ag e u se.(2 ) Bran ch es o f
8、 Macro -Lin g u istics: Psy ch o lin g u istics: it stu d ies lan g u ag e an d its relatio n with p sy ch o lo g y . So cio lin g u istics: it stu d ies all so cial asp ects o f lan g u ag e an d its relatio nwith so ciety fo rm th e co re o f th e b ran ch . Ap p lied lin g u istics: it stu d ies
9、th e ap p licatio n s o f lan g u ag e to th e so lu tio no f p ractical p ro b lems. Narro wly , it is th e ap p licatio n o f lin g u istic th eo ries an dp rin cip les to lan g u ag e teach in g , esp ecially th e teach in g o f fo reig n an d seco n dlan g u ag es. Oth er b ran ch es, su ch as c
10、o mp u tatio n al lin g u istics, n eu ro lin g u istics.3 . In wh at b asic way s d o es mo d ern lin g u istics d iffer fro m trad itio n alg rammar?Key : Mo d ern lin g u istics d iffers fro m trad itio n al g rammar in sev eral b asicway s.(1 ) Mo d ern lin g u istics is d escrip tiv e wh ile tr
11、ad itio n al g rammar isp rescrip tiv e.(2 ) Mo d ern lin g u istics reg ard s th e sp o k en lan g u ag e as p rimary , n o t th ewritten . Trad itio n al g rammarian s, o n th e o th er h an d , ten d ed to emp h asize, o ro v er-emp h asize, th e imp o rtan ce o f th e written d o cu men ts esp e
12、cially th eGreek o r Ro man Classical wo rk s, p artly b ecau se o f its p erman en ce.(3 ) Mo d ern lin g u istics d iffers fro m trad itio n al g rammar also in th at it d o esn o t fo rce lan g u ag es in to a Latin -b ased g rammar framewo rk .4 . Is mo d ern lin g u istics main ly sy n ch ro n
13、ic o r d iach ro n ic? Wh y ?Key : In mo d ern lin g u istics, a sy n ch ro n ic ap p ro ach seems to en jo y p rio rityo v er a d iach ro n ic o n e. Becau se p eo p le b eliev e th at u n less th e v ario u s stateso f a lan g u ag e in d ifferen t h isto rical p erio d s are su ccessfu lly stu d
14、ied , it wo u ldb e d ifficu lt to d escrib e th e ch an g es th at h av e tak en p lace in its h isto ricald ev elo p men t.5 . Fo r wh at reaso n s d o es mo d ern lin g u istics g iv e p rio rity to sp eech rath erth an to writin g ?Key : Sp eech an d writin g are th e two majo r med ia o f lin g
15、 u isticco mmu n icatio n . Mo d ern lin g u istics reg ard s th e sp o k en lan g u ag e as th en atu ral o r th e p rimary med iu m o f h u man lan g u ag e.Mo d ern lin g u istics g iv es th e sp o k en lan g u ag e p rio rity fo r so me o b v io u sreaso n s:(1 ) Fro m th e p o in t o f v iew o
16、f lin g u istic ev o lu tio n , sp eech is p rio r to writin g .Th e writin g sy stem o f an y lan g u ag e is alway s “in v en ted ” b y its u sers toreco rd sp eech . Ev en in to d ay s wo rld th ere are still man y lan g u ag es th at cano n ly b e sp o k en b u t n o t written .(2 ) In ev ery d
17、ay co mmu n icatio n , sp eech p lay s a g reater ro le th an writin g interms o f th e amo u n t o f in fo rmatio n co n v ey ed . Peo p le u se mu ch mo re o rallan g u ag e in d aily life th an u sin g written lan g u ag e.(3 ) Sp eech is alway s th e way in wh ich ev ery n ativ e sp eak er acq u
18、 ires h is o rh er mo th er to n g u e, wh ile writin g is learn ed an d tau g h t later, wh en h e o r sh eg o es to sch o o l.(4 ) Fo r mo d ern lin g u ists, sp o k en lan g u ag e rev eals man y tru e featu res o fh u man sp eech wh ile written lan g u ag e is o n ly th e “rev ised ” reco rd o f
19、 sp eech .Th u s th eir d ata, fo r in v estig atio n an d an aly sis are mo stly d rawn fro mev ery d ay sp eech , wh ich th ey reg ard as au th en tic.6 . Ho w is Sau ssu res d istin ctio n b etween lan g u e an d p aro le similar toCh o msk y s d istin ctio n b etween co mp eten ce an d p erfo rm
20、an ce?Key : In Sau ssu res d efin itio n , lan g u e refers to th e ab stract lin g u isticsy stem sh ared b y all th e memb ers o f a sp eech co mmu n ity , an d p aro le refersto th e realizatio n o f lan g u e in actu al u se. Similar to Sau ssu res d istin ctio n , Ch o msk y s d efin itio n ab
21、o u t co mp eten ceis th e id eal u sers k n o wled g e o f th e ru les o f h is lan g u ag e, an d p erfo rman ce isth e actu al realizatio n o f th is k n o wled g e in lin g u istic co mmu n icatio n . Bo th th e n o tio n o f lan g u e an d co mp eten ce refer to th e ab stract an d id ealn atu
22、re o f lan g u ag e with in a h u man b ein g , an d p aro le an d p erfo rman ce p o in tto th e actu al lan g u ag e u se. Similar to Sau ssu re, Ch o msk y th in k s th at wh atlin g u ists sh o u ld stu d y is th e id eal sp eak ers co mp eten ce, n o t h is p erfo rman ce.7 . Wh at ch aracteris
23、tics o f lan g u ag e d o y o u th in k sh o u ld b e in clu d ed in ag o o d , co mp reh en siv e d efin itio n o f lan g u ag e?Key : Lan g u ag e is a sy stem o f arb itrary v o cal sy mb o ls u sed fo r h u manco mmu n icatio n . Th e d efin itio n o f lan g u ag e sh o u ld in clu d e fiv e ess
24、en tialfacto rs o f lan g u ag e: sy stematic, arb itrary , v o cal, sy mb o lic an d mo stimp o rtan tly h u man -sp ecific.First o f all, lan g u ag e is a sy stem, i.e. lin g u istic elemen ts are arran g edsy stematically rath er th an ran d o mly .Seco n d , lan g u ag e is arb itrary in th e s
25、en se th at th ere is n o in trin sic co n n ectio nb etween a lin g u istic sy mb o l an d wh at th e sy mb o l stan d s fo r.Th ird , lan g u ag e is v o cal b ecau se th e p rimary med iu m fo r all lan g u ag es isso u n d o r sp eech .Fo u rth , wo rd s are ju st sy mb o ls; th ey are asso ciat
26、ed with o b jects, actio n s,id eas, etc. b y co n v en tio n .Fifth , lan g u ag e is h u man -sp ecific, i.e. it is v ery d ifferen t fro m th eco mmu n icatio n sy stems o th er fo rms o f life p o ssess.8 . Wh at are th e main featu res o f h u man lan g u ag e th at h av e b een sp ecified b yC
27、. Ho ck ett to sh o w th at it is essen tially d ifferen t fro m an imal co mmu n icatio nsy stem?Key : (1 ) Arb itrarin essTh is mean s th at th ere is n o lo g ical co n n ectio n b etween mean in g s an d so u n d s.A g o o d ex amp le is th e fact th at d ifferen t so u n d s are u sed to refer
28、to th e sameo b ject in d ifferen t lan g u ag es. Bu t it is n o t en tirely arb itrary at all lev els. So mewo rd s, su ch as th e o n es created in th e imitatio n o f so u n d s b y so u n d s aremo tiv ated in a certain d eg ree.(2 ) Pro d u ctiv ityLan g u ag e is p ro d u ctiv e o r creativ e
29、 in th at it mak es p o ssib le th e co n stru ctio nan d in terp retatio n o f n ew sig n als b y its u sers. Th is is wh y th ey can p ro d u cean d u n d erstan d an in fin itely larg e n u mb er o f sen ten ces, in clu d in g sen ten cesth ey h av e n ev er h eard b efo re.(3 ) Du alityLan g u a
30、g e is a sy stem, wh ich co n sists o f two sets o f stru ctu res, o r two lev els.At th e lo wer o r th e b asic lev el th ere is a stru ctu re o f so u n d s, wh ich aremean in g less b y th emselv es. Bu t th e so u n d s o f lan g u ag e can b e g ro u p ed an dreg ro u p ed in to a larg e n u m
31、b er o f u n its o f mean in g , wh ich are fo u n d at th eh ig h er lev el o f th e sy stem.(4 ) Disp lacemen tLan g u ag e can b e u sed to refer to th in g s wh ich are p resen t o r n o t p resen t, realo r imag in ed matters in th e p ast, p resen t, o r fu tu re, o r in far-away p laces. Th i
32、sp ro p erty p ro v id es sp eak ers with an o p p o rtu n ity to talk ab o u t a wid e ran g e o fth in g s, free fro m b arriers cau sed b y sep aratio n in time an d p lace.(5 ) Cu ltu ral Tran smissio nLan g u ag e is cu ltu rally tran smitted . It can n o t b e tran smitted th ro u g h h ered i
33、ty .(6 ) In terch an g eab ilityIn terch an g eab ility refers to th e fact th at man can b o th p ro d u ce an d receiv emessag es, an d h is ro les as a sp eak er an d a h earer can b e ex ch an g ed at ease.9 . Wh at are th e majo r fu n ctio n s o f lan g u ag e? Th in k o f y o u r o wn ex amp
34、lesfo r illu stratio n .Key : Th e th ree majo r fu n ctio n s o f lan g u ag e are th e d escrip tiv e fu n ctio n , th eex p ressiv e fu n ctio n an d th e so cial fu n ctio n .Th e d escrip tiv e fu n ctio n is also referred to as th e co g n itiv e, o r referen tialfu n ctio n . It is assu med t
35、o b e th e p rimary fu n ctio n o f lan g u ag e. It is th efu n ctio n to co n v ey factu al in fo rmatio n wh ich can b e asserted o r d en ied , an din so me cases ev en v erified . E.g . “Th e d isaster is th e mo st serio u s o n e th eco u n try h as ev er seen .”Th e ex p ressiv e fu n ctio n
36、 is also called th e emo tiv e o r attitu d in al fu n ctio n . Itsu p p lied in fo rmatio n ab o u t th e u sers feelin g s, p referen ces, p reju d ices an dv alu es. Th e ex amp le is “I will n ev er g o th ere fo r th e rest o f my life.”Th e so cial fu n ctio n is also referred to as th e in te
37、rp erso n al fu n ctio n . It serv esto estab lish an d main tain so cial relatio n s b etween p eo p le, e.g . “Ho w are y o ud o in g recen tly ?”第 2 章 音 位 学1 . Wh at are th e two majo r med ia o f lin g u istic co mmu n icatio n ? Of th e two ,wh ich o n e is p rimary an d wh y ?Key : Sp eech an
38、d writin g are th e two med ia u sed b y n atu ral lan g u ag es asv eh icles fo r co mmu n icatio n . Man y lan g u ag es in th e wo rld to d ay are b o thwritten an d sp o k en . Of th e two , sp eech is mo re b asic th an writin g .Mo d ern lin g u istics reg ard s th e sp o k en lan g u ag e as
39、th e n atu ral o r th e p rimarymed iu m o f h u man lan g u ag e fo r so me o b v io u s reaso n s. Fro m th e p o in t o fv iew o f lin g u istic ev o lu tio n , sp eech is p rio r to writin g . Th e writin g sy stem o fan y lan g u ag e is alway s “in v en ted ” b y its u sers to reco rd sp eech
40、wh en th en eed arises. Ev en in to d ay s wo rld th ere are still man y lan g u ag es th at cano n ly b e sp o k en b u t n o t written ? Th en in ev ery d ay co mmu n icatio n , sp eechp lay s a g reater ro le th an writin g in terms o f th e amo u n t o f in fo rmatio nco n v ey ed .An d also , s
41、p eech is alway s th e way in wh ich ev ery n ativ e sp eak er acq u iresh is mo th er to n g u e, an d writin g is learn ed an d tau g h t later wh en h e g o es tosch o o l. Fo r mo d ern lin g u ists, sp o k en lan g u ag e rev eals man y tru e featu res o fh u man sp eech wh ile written lan g u
42、ag e o n ly th e “rev ised ” reco rd o f sp eech .Th u s th eir d ata fo r in v estig atio n an d an aly sis are mo stly d rawn fro mev ery d ay sp eech , wh ich th ey reg ard as au th en tic.更多各类考试资料 v：344647 公众号：顺通考试资料 2 . Wh at is v o icin g an d h o w is it cau sed ?Key : Vo icin g is a q u alit
43、y o f sp eech so u n d s an d a featu re o f all v o wels an dso me co n so n an ts in En g lish . It is cau sed b y th e v ib ratio n o f th e v o cal co rd s.If th e v o cal co rd v ib rates, th en th e so u n d is said to b e v o iced , as /d /, /b / an d/g /; wh ile if th e v o cal co rd d o es
44、n o t v ib rate, th en th e so u n d is said to b ev o iceless, su ch as /t/, /p / an d /k /.3 . Ex p lain with ex amp les h o w b ro ad tran scrip tio n an d n arro w tran scrip tio nd iffer?Key : Th e tran scrip tio n with letter-sy mb o ls o n ly called b ro ad tran scrip tio n .Th is is th e tra
45、n scrip tio n n o rmally u sed in d ictio n aries an d teach in g tex tb o o k sfo r g en eral p u rp o ses.Th e latter, i.e. th e tran scrip tio n with letter-sy mb o ls to g eth er with th ed iacritics is called n arro w tran scrip tio n . Th is is th e tran scrip tio n n eed ed an du sed b y th e
46、 p h o n etician s in th eir stu d y o f sp eech so u n d s. With th e h elp o f th ed iacritics th ey can faith fu lly rep resen t as mu ch o f th e fin e d etails as it isn ecessary fo r th eir p u rp o se.In b ro ad tran scrip tio n , th e sy mb o l l is u sed fo r th e so u n d s l in th e fo u
47、rwo rd s leaf li:f, feel fi:l, b u ild b ild , an d h ealth h elW. As a matter o ffact, th e so u n d l in all th ese fo u r so u n d co mb in atio n s d iffers slig h tly . Th e lin li:f, o ccu rrin g b efo re a v o wel, is called a clear l, an d n o d iacritic isn eed ed to in d icate it; th e l i
48、n fi:l an d b ild , o ccu rrin g at th e en d o f a wo rdo r b efo re an o th er co n so n an t, is p ro n o u n ced d ifferen tly fro m th e clear l as in“leaf”. It is called d ark l an d in n arro w tran scrip tio n th e d iacritic is u sedto in d icate it. Th en in th e so u n d co mb in atio n h
49、 el, th e so u n d l is fo llo wedb y th e En g lish d en tal so u n d W, its p ro n u n ciatio n is so mewh at affected b yth e d en tal so u n d th at fo llo ws it. It is th u s called a d en tal l, an d in n arro wtran scrip tio n th e d iacritic l is u sed to in d icate it. It is tran scrib ed a
50、s h elW.4 . Ho w are th e En g lish co n so n an ts classified ?Key : En g lish co n so n an ts can b e classified in two way s: o n e is in terms o fman n er o f articu latio n an d th e o th er is in terms o f p lace o f articu latio n .In terms o f man n er o f articu latio n th e En g lish co n
