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类型英语论文写作--主体段落写作.ppt

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    英语论文写作--主体段落写作.ppt
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    1、主体段落拓展,主体段落的结构,开头段(文章总论点)主体段分论点1拓展句a+拓展句b分论点2拓展句c+拓展句d分论点3拓展句e+拓展句f结尾段,1) Incomplete2)Should not be a question3) Should not contain phrases like “I think”, “In my opinion”, etc.,写主题句时主要回避以下3个错误,一个段落是由主题句和扩展句共同构成的。扩展句是对主题句的延伸或证明。它们之间的关系构成一个段落好坏的关键。扩展句和主题句之间至少要注意以下两点:第一,意义的一致性相关性(unity);第二,逻辑的连贯性(cohe

    2、rence)。,扩展句,所谓的意义的一致性指的是所有的扩展句都必须是主题句的延伸或者证明,它对主题句能起到支持的作用。否则,这样的扩展句就应当删除掉。,但是只有内容上的一致性还不足以保证能写出一个好的段落。在行文过程中作者还要注意各个句子的正确、紧凑安排,也就是要保证意义的连贯性。,实现意义的连贯一般采取两种手段:1) 逻辑的连贯2) 过渡词的使用,拓展过程中经常出现的问题:,在内容的一致性上,容易犯的错误主要有:1)跑题;2)重复;3)片面;而在意义的连贯上,主要毛病是信笔游走,行文没有规矩,或者没有必要的过渡词。,1、跑题The report indicates that babies o

    3、f fathers who smoke are likely to be smaller and weaker than babies of non-smoking fathers. Of course it is already well known that pregnant women who smoke can damage the health of their babies. My sister smoked twenty cigarettes a day when she was expecting her first child. Another worrying point

    4、is that smoking just before the start of the pregnancy can affect the baby later. I heard recently that certain foods harm unborn babies.,2、岔题The main school building contains most of the classrooms. That was our “second home”, the place where my classmates and I worked, studied, and learned for thr

    5、ee years. Beyond that is the science building. Thats where we did all our laboratory work for chemistry and physics. On the right side of science building is a library, where there are a large collection of books and periodicals for us to read. Since our teachers were rich in knowledge and taught us

    6、 very earnestly, we had always done better than students of other schools in joint examinations.,3、重复Watching TV too much is harmful to your eyes. If you stay in front of TV for too long time your eyes might get hurt. You will be near-sighted. You cannot see clearly when you read. You even cannot se

    7、e clearly a friend when you meet him in street.,4、片面Our school is an Army school, so we must obey many rules. Because of this, my house is special in some ways. First, our house is very clean, have no piece of paper on the ground. Everything in my house is neat. Perhaps some other house is dirty, bu

    8、t if my house is dirty we would be punished and forced to clean it.,拓展的主要方法:,一、列举法(Listing)二、举例法(Exemplification)三、分类法(Classification)四、比较对照法(Comparison and Contrast)五、因果法(Cause and Effect),列举法(Listing),也叫枚举法。是一种在主题句中提出论点,然后列举一系列论据或原因对主题进行论证或阐述的方法。列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间顺序等进行。,列举法作文例子,To get the

    9、 most out of your textbook you should follow several steps very carefully. First, you should make a preliminary survey of each book to get a general idea of what the book contains. Second, you should read for deeper understanding and formulate questions as you read. Next, make notes of the major poi

    10、nt of each chapter. Then, test yourself to be sure that you can answer questions likely to be raised in class or in examinations. Finally, review your notes and reread any parts of the book that are unclear to you.,常用于列举法的过渡连接词,first, second, third, etc.; in the first place, in the second place; fir

    11、st of all, first and foremost; to begin with, to start with; for one thing, for another; also, besides, furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more; above all; next; beyond that; initially; eventually, last but not least.,举例法(Exemplification),作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容。严格地讲,举例法也是列举法的一种,它们的区别在于:列举法侧

    12、重罗列事实,所列事实力求全面;而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者的观点,且事例可多可少。,举例法作文例子,There are many different forms of exercises to suit different tastes. For example, those who enjoy competitive sports may take up ball games. For another example, if they prefer to exercise alone, they can have a run or take a walk in the mornin

    13、g or in the evening. Besides, people can go swimming in the summer and go skating in the winter. In short, no matter what their interests are, people can always find more than one sport that is suitable to them.,方法1:举例+结果/影响,A sedentary(久坐的,静态的) lifestyle may lead to some physical hazards.(分论点) Evid

    14、ence shows that in Shanghai over 30 percent teenagers are suffering from obesity or near-sightedness.(举例) Hence, their further studies or future careers might be negatively affected.(结果),Children exposed to too much screen time would show signs of severe addiction or long-lasting isolation.(分论点) For

    15、 instance, many TV programs like cartoons or comedies often provide laughter and joy for the kids while most video games portray virtual stories full of adventure and fantasy.(举例) As a result, some teenagers may become unwilling to engage in any healthy outdoor activities.(影响),举例法中常见的过渡性词语,for examp

    16、le, for instance, as an example, as an illustration, such as/ such, a case in point is, to illustrate, in particular, specifically, say, next, namely, that is, like, take as an example, etc.,运用例证法往往会犯两种错误:第一是举例不当;第二是例子没有主次顺序。病例分析Population control is a fundamental policy in China. If the country is

    17、overcrowded too much, the government has to spend more money than they can afford to support them; Overcrowded, the country may seek more land to support its people, therefore it may want to have a war against other country.在这个段落中,作者为了证明计划生育政策的重要性,举了两个例子,,但这两个例子从内容上都是不可取的。再看另外一个例子:Environment Pollut

    18、ion must be curbed for the benefit of people. I have traveled through half of China from south to north, I found that I can not see a clear river or lake. When I looked up in the sky, I found its color was not blue at all, it is gray! We have lost the beautiful globe for ever, I thought. So I think

    19、we have to take some measures to fight pollution.,分类法(Classification),在阐述某一概念的段落中,常用分类法。通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类地叙述,使读者有更为清晰的认识。,分类法作文例子,Generally, the expression of thoughts and feelings has been in the form of oral speech. When there is a language barrier, communication is accomplished through sign lang

    20、uage in which motions stand for letters, words and ideas. Tourists and the people unable to hear or speak have had to resort to this form of expression. Many of these symbols of whole words are very vivid and exact and can be used internationally; spelling, however, cannot. Body language transmits i

    21、deas or thoughts by certain actions, either intentionally or unintentionally. A nod signifies approval, while shaking the head indicates a negative reaction. Other forms of language can be found in signal flags, Morse code and picture signs.,常见的用以分类的词语,动词:sort (into), divide (into), classify, group,

    22、 fall into, etc.名词:sorts, classes, groups, categories, types, kinds, aspects, etc.,比较对照法(Comparison and Contrast) 定义,比较对照法由比较和对照两部分组成,但两者往往一起用以阐述两者或者更多事物间的异同,常用于说明文和议论文写作。比较描述的是所比对象的相同、类似点,而对照则强调所描述对象之间的不同,甚至相反之处。常用的比较对照的结构模式有两种,即整块比较法和逐点比较法。在整块比较法中先集中描述A,再集中描述B。其模式为:A1、 A2、 A3B1、 B2、 B3,Computers h

    23、ave both favorable and unfavorable aspects.First, computers can calculate. They can make work more efficient for they have a high speed of calculation. Besides, people can communicate with each other by E-mail, which costs people less money and less time. Most important of all, computers create wide

    24、 communication around the world. People can communicate with each other via the Internet. They can make friends all over the world.But every coin had two sides. The negative aspects are also apparent. To begin with, since computers can do a lot of work for us, such as calculation, we may rely too mu

    25、ch on then and become lazier and lazier. To make matters worse, although it is convenient for people to communicate with each other by E-mail, the original warm relationship may become cold, for people will have fewer opportunities to talk to each other face to face. Worst of all, computers can spre

    26、ad viruses caused by electronic hackers resulting in a lot of important information being lost.,逐点比较法是A、B双方同时逐点描述,其模式为:A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3例如:A proverb says, “Like father, like son.” But the proverb doesnt seem to fit my grandfather and my father because they have more differences than similarities.Fir

    27、st, my grandfather is introverted, while my father is extroverted. We can easily read what is on my fathers mind, but it is hard to find out what my grandfather is thinking about. Next, my grandfather is always indifferent to children. He seldom talks with children and the children are somewhat afra

    28、id of him. In contrast, my father is very warm-hearted to children. He likes to talk with them, so the children in my family all like him. Finally, my grandfather is obstinate. Once he had made a decision, he never changes it. However, my father, even after he has made a decision, will ask others fo

    29、r opinions. If he thinks the opinions are reasonable, he might change his mind.Although my grandfather and my father resemble each other very much in appearance, they differ in character, thinking and behavior.,常见的比较对照的过渡性词语,常用的表示比较的过渡性词语有:similarly, likewise, correspondingly, in a similar way, in t

    30、he same way, too, like, resemble, similar to, equal to, equally, important, bothand, the same as常用的表示对照的过渡性词语有:on the one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, in/ by contrast, in contrast to, in sharp contrast, conversely, otherwise, however, nevertheless, but, yet, (al)though, even though, whe

    31、reas/ while, it is truebut, instead, unlike, rather than, in spite of, contrast with, differ(ent) from, contrary to,因果法 Cause and Effect,因果是写作中常用的一种段落展开方式。作者可以从原因开始得出结果,也可以从结果说起,追究原因。它常用到的过渡词有:therefore, consequently, accordingly, as a result, hence, so that, thus/ since, because, for, due to, for t

    32、his reason, owing to,病例分析Children are becoming cleverer and cleverer because of television(分论点). I often find the neighbor children say some adult words which are often heard from TV. I once heard a boy of five say to a girl of about four that it was not easy for me to say that I love you. Children

    33、are really growing faster than ever before.,In recent years the crime rate is getting higher and higher and the reason, according to me, is that man is getting meaner and meaner. Some people say that man is not as honest as before, and I think that is right. If they are not honest, they will do some

    34、thing wrong, and that would cause the crime rate rise to a high level.,结尾段,结尾段概述常用的结尾段的表达方法结尾段常用的的核心句型,结尾段概述,开头和结尾往往是读者注意最多的部分。开头引起读者注意,提出主题;结尾与开头呼应,使读者感觉全文论述完整,圆满结束。从某种意义上来说,结尾更容易给读者留下深刻印象。人们常把好的文章结尾称作是“画龙点睛”,可见结尾部分对整篇文章所起的作用。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,总结归纳重申主题预测展望提出建议提出问题引用格言,常用的结尾段的表达方法,总结归纳简要总结归纳文章要点,以便深化主题印象

    35、。如:In conclusion I would like to say that children need to be understood but children also need to understand their parents. It is only when parents and children come to understand each other that we can solve problems effectively and narrow the generation gap.分析:文章通过in conclusion引出对前面所作论述的归纳,使主题更加明

    36、确。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,重申主题再次强调和确定文章开头阐述的中心思想。如:Admittedly, science has created atomic bombs and produced pervasive pollution. But it has transformed the lives of millions of people. It has multiplied mans energy, hopes, ambitions and understanding. It has elevated and will continue to elevate man intellect

    37、ually and spiritually.分析:文章对前文的观点进行了重复,使之更加鲜明。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,预测展望立足当前,放眼未来。如:So to sum up, we should offer our help to all who are in need. We expect to get love from others and we also give love to others. I believe that the relationship between people will be harmonious and our society will be a bet

    38、ter place for us to live in.分析:文章通过对未来积极的展望,说明了爱在生活中的重要性。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,提出建议提出解决问题的途径、方法或呼吁人们采取相应的行动。如:As the issue plays such a key role in our society, sufficient attention should be paid from both the government and the public. The government should make sure that the census is well carried out and

    39、 the people should be actively involved in the census.分析:文章在结尾从政府和公众两个角度提出建议,以保证人口普查的顺利进行。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,提出问题提出具有发人深省的问题,从而突出中心思想。如:Old people may choose to live alone for themselves and even embrace this living pattern. But in the deep part of their hearts, they must feel lonely. They need their chil

    40、dren to stay with, to talk with, and take care of them. Why cant young people think of the days when they are getting old分析:文章最有用一个反问句“年轻人为什么不想想自己年老时的情形”来提醒他们将心比心,设身处地,去关心父母双亲。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,引用格言用格言、谚语或习语总括全文中心思想。如:Many yeas ago, a great philosopher Francis Bacon remarked that “Knowledge is power.” This can now be translated into contemporary terms. In our social setting, “Knowledge is change”and accelerating knowledge-acquisition, fueling the great engine of technology, means accelerating change.分析: 文章借用培根“知识就是力量”名言的结构,指出“知识就是变化”以深化主题,给读者留下深刻的印象。,

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