1、元音辅音及其差别元音 12个单元音 长元音 i:E:C:u:B: 短元音 ECQeA 8个双元音aieiCiiEZEuEEuau 辅音 10对 清辅音 ptkfsWFtFtrts 浊辅音 dgvzTVdVdrdz 3个鼻音 m n N 3个似拼音 h r l 2个半元音 w j 二， 其次我们看理论定义：元音(vowel)发音时从肺部呼出的气流通过起共鸣器作用的口腔，阻力极小并无摩擦声音的语音。半元音的发音方法与元音相同。但常被视为辅音；yawn（打呵欠）中的y音 ，walk(步行)中的w音是半元音。元音，又称母音，是音素的一种，与辅音相对。元音是在发音过程中由气流通过口腔而不受阻碍发出的音。
2、发元音时，气流从肺部通过声门冲击声带，使声带发出均匀震动，然后震音气流不受阻碍的通过口腔、鼻腔，通过舌、唇的调节而发出不同的声音。发元音时声带必然震动，这叫做浊音。也有的语言发元音时声带不振动，发出清元音(voiceless vowel)。英语中音素分为元音音素和辅音音素两大类。其中元音音素20个，辅音音素24个。 辅音：不论声带振动与否，发声时呼出的气流通过口腔或鼻腔时受到一定阻碍，这样的语音称为辅音。辅音发音不响亮，口腔中气流受到阻碍，不是构成音节的主要音。英语中有24个辅音。（有的书将ts、dz、tr、dr 也归为辅音，即有28个辅音，共48个音素。） 辅音有清辅音和浊辅音之分，同样的发
3、音位置，如果声带震动就是浊辅音，如果声带不震动就是清辅音了如：。p t k三个音发音时声带不振动，叫做清辅音，b d g 三个音发音时声带振动，叫做浊辅音。f s h W F 五个音为清辅音，v z r w j T V 七个音为浊辅音。 元音字母是26个字母中的a e i o u 其他的是辅音字母 注意：元音字母和元音不同 辅音字母和辅音不同 另外清浊辅音的区别也仅仅与声带振动有关。发清辅音时声带不会振动，发浊辅音时声带会振动。A Brief Look at the History of EnglishThe history of English is conventionally, if p
4、erhaps too neatly, divided into three periods usually called Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), Middle English, and Modern English. The earliest period begins with the migration of certain Germanic tribes from the continent to Britain in the fifth century A. D., though no records of their language surviv
5、e from before the seventh century, and it continues until the end of the eleventh century or a bit later. By that time Latin, Old Norse (the language of the Viking invaders), and especially the Anglo-Norman French of the dominant class after the Norman Conquest in 1066 had begun to have a substantia
6、l impact on the lexicon, and the well-developed inflectional system that typifies the grammar of Old English had begun to break down. The following brief sample of Old English prose illustrates several of the significant ways in which change has so transformed English that we must look carefully to
7、find points of resemblance between the language of the tenth century and our own. It is taken from Aelfrics Homily on St. Gregory the Great and concerns the famous story of how that pope came to send missionaries to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity after seeing Anglo-Saxon boys for sale as s
8、laves in Rome: Eft he axode, hu re eode nama wre e hi of comon. Him ws geandwyrd, t hi Angle genemnode wron. a cw he, Rihtlice hi sind Angle gehatene, for an e hi engla wlite habba, and swilcum gedafena t hi on heofonum engla geferan beon.A few of these words will be recognized as identical in spell
9、ing with their modern equivalents - he, of, him, for, and, on - and the resemblance of a few others to familiar words may be guessed - nama to name, comon to come, wre to were, ws to was - but only those who have made a special study of Old English will be able to read the passage with understanding
10、. The sense of it is as follows: Again he St. Gregory asked what might be the name of the people from which they came. It was answered to him that they were named Angles. Then he said, Rightly are they called Angles because they have the beauty of angels, and it is fitting that such as they should b
11、e angels companions in heaven. Some of the words in the original have survived in altered form, including axode (asked), hu (how), rihtlice (rightly), engla (angels), habba (have), swilcum (such), heofonum (heaven), and beon (be). Others, however, have vanished from our lexicon, mostly without a tra
12、ce, including several that were quite common words in Old English: eft again, eode people, nation, cw said, spoke, gehatene called, named, wlite appearance, beauty, and geferan companions. Recognition of some words is naturally hindered by the presence of two special characters, , called thorn, and
13、, called edh, which served in Old English to represent the sounds now spelled with th. Other points worth noting include the fact that the pronoun system did not yet, in the late tenth century, include the third person plural forms beginning with th-: hi appears where we would use they. Several aspe
14、cts of word order will also strike the reader as oddly unlike ours. Subject and verb are inverted after an adverb - a cw he Then said he - a phenomenon not unknown in Modern English but now restricted to a few adverbs such as never and requiring the presence of an auxiliary verb like do or have. In
15、subordinate clauses the main verb must be last, and so an object or a preposition may precede it in a way no longer natural: e hi of comon which they from came, for an e hi engla wlite habba because they angels beauty have. Perhaps the most distinctive difference between Old and Modern English refle
16、cted in Aelfrics sentences is the elaborate system of inflections, of which we now have only remnants. Nouns, adjectives, and even the definite article are inflected for gender, case, and number: re eode (of) the people is feminine, genitive, and singular, Angle Angles is masculine, accusative, and
17、plural, and swilcum such is masculine, dative, and plural. The system of inflections for verbs was also more elaborate than ours: for example, habba have ends with the -a suffix characteristic of plural present indicative verbs. In addition, there were two imperative forms, four subjunctive forms (t
18、wo for the present tense and two for the preterit, or past, tense), and several others which we no longer have. Even where Modern English retains a particular category of inflection, the form has often changed. Old English present participles ended in -ende not -ing, and past participles bore a pref
19、ix ge- (as geandwyrd answered above). The period of Middle English extends roughly from the twelfth century through the fifteenth. The influence of French (and Latin, often by way of French) upon the lexicon continued throughout this period, the loss of some inflections and the reduction of others (
20、often to a final unstressed vowel spelled -e) accelerated, and many changes took place within the phonological and grammatical systems of the language. A typical prose passage, especially one from the later part of the period, will not have such a foreign look to us as Aelfrics prose has; but it wil
21、l not be mistaken for contemporary writing either. The following brief passage is drawn from a work of the late fourteenth century called Mandevilles Travels. It is fiction in the guise of travel literature, and, though it purports to be from the pen of an English knight, it was originally written i
22、n French and later translated into Latin and English. In this extract Mandeville describes the land of Bactria, apparently not an altogether inviting place, as it is inhabited by full yuele evil folk and full cruell. In at lond ben trees at beren wolle, as ogh it were of scheep; whereof men maken cl
23、othes, and all ing at may ben made of wolle. In at contree ben many ipotaynes, at dwellen som tyme in the water, and somtyme on the lond: and ei ben half man and half hors, as I haue seyd before; and ei eten men, whan ei may take hem. And ere ben ryueres and watres at ben fulle byttere, ree sithes m
24、ore an is the water of the see. In at contr ben many griffounes, more plentee an in ony other contree. Sum men seyn at ei han the body vpward as an egle, and benethe as a lyoun: and treuly ei seyn soth at ei ben of at schapp. But o griffoun hath the body more gret, and is more strong, anne eight lyo
25、uns, of suche lyouns as ben o this half; and more gret and strongere an an hundred egles, suche as we han amonges vs. For o griffoun ere wil bere fleynge to his nest a gret hors, 3if he may fynde him at the poynt, or two oxen 3oked togidere, as ei gon at the plowgh.The spelling is often peculiar by
26、modern standards and even inconsistent within these few sentences (contr and contree, o griffoun and a gret hors, anne and an, for example). Moreover, in the original text, there is in addition to thorn another old character 3, called yogh, to make difficulty. It can represent several sounds but her
27、e may be thought of as equivalent to y. Even the older spellings (including those where u stands for v or vice versa) are recognizable, however, and there are only a few words like ipotaynes hippopotamuses and sithes times that have dropped out of the language altogether. We may notice a few words a
28、nd phrases that have meanings no longer common such as byttere salty, o this half on this side of the world, and at the poynt to hand, and the effect of the centuries-long dominance of French on the vocabulary is evident in many familiar words which could not have occurred in Aelfrics writing even i
29、f his subject had allowed them, words like contree, ryueres, plentee, egle, and lyoun. In general word order is now very close to that of our time, though we notice constructions like hath the body more gret and three sithes more an is the water of the see. We also notice that present tense verbs st
30、ill receive a plural inflection as in beren, dwellen, han, and ben and that while nominative ei has replaced Aelfrics hi in the third person plural, the form for objects is still hem. All the same, the number of inflections for nouns, adjectives, and verbs has been greatly reduced, and in most respe
31、cts Mandeville is closer to Modern than to Old English. The period of Modern English extends from the sixteenth century to our own day. The early part of this period saw the completion of a revolution in the phonology of English that had begun in late Middle English and that effectively redistribute
32、d the occurrence of the vowel phonemes to something approximating their present pattern. (Mandevilles English would have sounded even less familiar to us than it looks.) Other important early developments include the stabilizing effect on spelling of the printing press and the beginning of the direc
33、t influence of Latin and, to a lesser extent, Greek on the lexicon. Later, as English came into contact with other cultures around the world and distinctive dialects of English developed in the many areas which Britain had colonized, numerous other languages made small but interesting contributions
34、to our word-stock. 英语写作常用修辞方法发布时间：2010-07-15 浏览次数：英语中的修辞与汉语的修辞相比,分类细,种类多.下面将英语的修辞简单介绍如下:1.Simile 明喻明喻是将具有共性的不同事物作对比.这种共性存在于人们的心里,而不是事物的自然属性.标志词常用 like, as, seem, as if, as though, similar to, such as等.例如:1.He was like a cock who thought the sun had risen to hear him crow.2.I wandered lonely as c clo
35、ud.3.Einstein only had a blanket on, as if he had just walked out of a fairy tale.2.Metaphor 隐喻,暗喻隐喻是简缩了的明喻,是将某一事物的名称用于另一事物,通过比较形成.例如:1.Hope is a good breakfast, but it is a bad supper.2.Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested.3.Metonymy 借喻,转喻借喻不直接说出所要说的
36、事物,而使用另一个与之相关的事物名称.I.以容器代替内容,例如:1.The kettle boils. 水开了.2.The room sat silent. 全屋人安静地坐着.II.以资料.工具代替事物的名称,例如:Lend me your ears, please. 请听我说.III.以作者代替作品,例如:a complete Shakespeare 莎士比亚全集VI.以具体事物代替抽象概念,例如:I had the muscle, and they made money out of it.我有力气,他们就用我的力气赚钱.4.Synecdoche 提喻提喻用部分代替全体,或用全体代替部分,
37、或特殊代替一般.例如:1.There are about 100 hands working in his factory.他的厂里约有100名工人.2.He is the Newton of this century.他是本世纪的牛顿.3.The fox goes very well with your cap.这狐皮围脖与你的帽子很相配.5.Synaesthesia 通感,联觉,移觉这种修辞法是以视.听.触.嗅.味等感觉直接描写事物.例如:1.The birds sat upon a tree and poured forth their lily like voice.鸟儿落在树上,倾泻
38、出百合花似的声音.2.Taste the music of Mozart.品尝Mozart的音乐.6.Personification 拟人拟人是把生命赋予无生命的事物.例如:1.The night gently lays her hand at our fevered heads.2.I was very happy and could hear the birds singing in the woods.7.Hyperbole 夸张夸张是以言过其实的说法表达强调的目的.它可以加强语势,增加表达效果.例如:1.I beg a thousand pardons.2.Love you. You
39、are the whole world to me, and the moon and the stars.3.When she heard the bad news, a river of tears poured out.8.Parallelism 排比, 平行这种修辞法是把两个或两个以上的结构大体相同或相似,意思相关,语气一致的短语.句子排列成串,形成一个整体.例如:1.No one can be perfectly free till all are free; no one can be perfectly moral till all are moral; no one can b
40、e perfectly happy till all are happy.2.In the days when all these things are to be answered for, I summon you and yours, to the last of your bad race, to answer for them. In the days when all these things are to be answered for, I summon your brother, the worst of your bad race, to answer for them s
41、eparately.9.Euphemism 委婉,婉辞法婉辞法指用委婉,文雅的方法表达粗恶,避讳的话.例如:1.He is out visiting the necessary.他出去方便一下.2.His relation with his wife has not been fortunate.他与妻子关系不融洽.3.Deng Xiaoping passed away in 1997.10.Allegory 讽喻,比方这是一种源于希腊文的修辞法,意为换个方式的说法.它是一种形象的描述,具有双重性,表层含义与真正意味的是两回事.例如:1.Make the hay while the sun s
42、hines.2.Its time to turn plough into sword.11.Irony 反语反语指用相反意义的词来表达意思的作文方式.如在指责过失.错误时,用赞同过失的说法,而在表扬时,则近乎责难的说法.例如:1.It would be a fine thing indeed not knowing what time it was in the morning.2Of course, you only carry large notes, no small change on you. the waiter said to the beggar.12.Pun 双关双关就是用一
43、个词在句子中的双重含义,借题发挥.作出多种解释,旁敲侧击,从而达到意想不到的 窗体顶端窗体底端幽默.滑稽效果.它主要以相似的词形.词意和谐音的方式出现.例如:1.She is too low for a high praise, too brown for a fair praise and too little for a great praise.2.An ambassador is an honest man who lies abroad for the good of his country.3.If we dont hang together, we shall hang sepa
44、rately.13.Parody 仿拟这是一种模仿名言.警句.谚语,改动其中部分词语,从而使其产生新意的修辞.例如:1.Rome was not built in a day, nor in a year.2.A friend in need is a friend to be avoided.3.If you give a girl an inch nowadays she will make address of it.14.Rhetorical question 修辞疑问它与疑问句的不同在于它并不以得到答复为目的,而是以疑问为手段,取得修辞上的效果,其特点是:肯定问句表示强烈否定,而否定
45、问句表示强烈的肯定.它的答案往往是不言而喻的.例如:1.How was it possible to walk for an hour through the woods and see nothing worth of note?2.Shall we allow those untruths to go unanswered?15.Antithesis 对照,对比,对偶这种修辞指将意义完全相反的语句排在一起对比的一种修辞方法.例如:1.Not that I loved Caeser less but that I loved Romemore.2.You are staying; I am
46、going.3.Give me liberty, or give me death.16.Paradox 隽语这是一种貌似矛盾,但包含一定哲理的意味深长的说法,是一种矛盾修辞法.例如:1.More haste, less speed.2.The child is the father to the man.17.Oxymoron 反意法,逆喻这也是一种矛盾修辞法,用两种不相调和的特征形容一个事物,以不协调的搭配使读者领悟句中微妙的含义.例如:1.No light, but rather darkness visible.2.The state of this house is cheerless welcome.18.Climax 渐进法,层进法这种修辞是将一系列词语按照意念的大小.轻重.深浅.高低等逐层渐进,最后达到顶点.可以增强语势,逐渐加深读者印象.例如:1.I am sorry, I am so sorry, I am so extremely sorry.2.Eye had not seen nor ear heard, and nothing had touched his heart of stone.19.Anticlimax 渐降法与climax
