1、Unit 2 Research and Development研究和开发Research and development, or R&D as it is commonly referred to, is an activity which is carried out by all sectors of manufacturing industry but its extent varies considerably, as we will see shortly. Let us first understand, or at least get a feel for, what the t
2、erms mean. Although the distinction between research and development is not always clear-cut, and there is often considerable overlap, we will attempt to separate them. In simple terms research can be thought of as the activity which produces new ideas and knowledge whereas development is putting th
3、ose ideas into practice as new process and products. To illustrate this with an example, predicting the structure of a new molecule which would have a specific biological activity and synthesizing it could be seen as research whereas testing it and developing it to the point where it could be market
4、ed as a new drug could be described as the development part.研究和开发，或通常所称 R&D 是制造业各个部门都要进行的一项活动。我们马上可以看到，它的内容变化很大。我们首先了解或先感觉一下这个词的含义。尽管研究和开发的定义总是分得不很清楚，而且有许多重叠的部分，我们还是要试着把它们区分开来。简单说来，研究是产生新思想和新知识的活动，而开发则是把这些思想贯彻到实践中得到新工艺和新产品的行为。可以用一个例子来描述这一点，预测一个有特殊生物活性的分子结构并合成它可以看成是研究而测试它并把它发展到可以作为一种新药推向市场这一阶段则看作开发部分
5、。1. Fundamental Research and Applied ResearchIn industry the primary reason for carting out R&D is economic and is to strengthen and improve the companys position and profitability. The purpose of R&D is to generate and provide information and knowledge to reduce uncertainty, solve problems and to p
6、rovide better data on which management can base decisions. Specific projects cover a wide range of activities and time scales, from a few months to 20 years.1 基础研究和应用研究在工业上进行研究和开发最主要的原因是经济利益方面，是为了加强公司的地位，提高公司的盈利能力。R&D 的目的是做出并提供信息和知识以减低不确定性，解决问题，以及向管理层提供更好的数据以便他们能据此做出决策。特别的项目涵盖很大的活动范围和时间范围，从几个月到 20 年
7、。We can pick out a number of areas of R&D activity in the following paragraphs but if we were to start with those which were to spring to the mind of the academic, rather than the industrial, chemist then these would be basic, fundamental (background) or exploratory research and the synthesis of new
8、 compounds. This is also labeled “blue skies” research.我们可以在后面的段落里举出大量的 R&D 活动。但是如果我们举出的点子来源于研究院化学家而不是工业化学家的头脑，这就是基础的或探索性的研究。这种研究也常被贴上“无价值”标签。Fundamental research is typically associated with university research. It may be carried out for its own intrinsic interest and it will add to the total knowl
9、edge base but no immediate applications of it in the “real world” well be apparent. Note that it will provide a valuable training in defining and solving problems, i.e. research methodology for the research student who carries it out under supervision. However, later “spin offs” from such work can l
10、ead to useful applications. Thus physicists claim that but for the study and development of quantum theory we might not have had computers and nuclear power. However, to take a specifically chemical example, general studies on a broad area such as hydrocarbon oxidation might provide information whic
11、h would be useful in more specific areas such as cyclohexane oxidation for the production of nylon intermediates.基础研究通常与大学研究联系在一起，它可能是由于对其内在的兴趣而进行研究并且这种研究能够拓宽（现有的）知识范围，但在现实世界中的直接应用可能性是很小的。请注意，这种以内在提出和解决问题方面提供了极有价值的训练（机会） ，比如，在指导下完成研究工作的学生所接受的研究方法学（的训练） 。而且，从这些工作中产生的“有用的副产品”随后也能带来可观的使用价值。因此，物理学家宣称要不是
12、量子理论的研究和发展我们可能仍然没有计算机和核能量。不管怎样，举一个特殊的化学方面的例子吧，在各个领域如烃的氧化方面所做的广泛的研究将为一些特殊的领域如环己烷氧化生成尼龙中间产物提供有用的信息。Aspects of synthesis could involve either developing new, more specific reagents for controlling particular functional group interconversions, i.e. developing synthetic methodology or complete synthesis
13、of an entirely new molecule which is biologically active. Although the former is clearly fundamental the latter encompasses both this and applied aspects. This term applied has traditionally been more associated with research out in industrial laboratories, since this is more focused or targeted. It
14、 is a consequence of the work being business driven.通过合成可以生产出一些新的、更特殊的试剂以控制特殊的官能团转换，即发展合成方法或完成一些具有生物活性的新分子的合成。尽管前者显然属于基础性研究而后者则包括基础研究和实用性研究两部分。所谓“实用性”习惯上是指与在工业实验室完成的研究联系在一起的，因为它更具目的性，它是商业行为驱动的结果。Note, however, that there has been a major change in recent years as academic institutions have increasin
15、gly turned to industry for research funding, with the result that much more of their research effort is mow devoted to more applied research. Even so, in academia the emphasis generally is very much on the research rather than the development.然而，请注意。近几年有很大的变化，大学研究机构正越来越多地转向工业界寻求研究经费，其结果就是他们的研究工作越来越多
16、地是致力于实用研究。即使这样，学院工作的重点通常还是在于研究而不是开发。2. Types of Industrial Research and DevelopmentThe applied or more targeted type of research and development commonly carried out in industry can be of several types and we will briefly consider each. They are: ()product development, () process development, () pro
17、cess improvement and () applications development. Even under these headings there are a multitude of aspects so only a typical example can be quoted in each case. The emphasis on each of these will vary considerably within the different sectors of the chemical industry.2工业研究和开发的类型通常在生产中进行的应用性的或有目的性的
18、研究和开发可以分为好几类，我们对此加以简述。它们是：（1）产品开发；（2）工艺开发；（3）工艺改进；（4）应用开发；每一类下还有许多分支。我们.对每一类举一个典型的例子来加以说明。在化学工业的不同部门内每类的工作重点有很大的不同。(1)Product development. Product development includes not only the discovery and development of a new drug but also, for example, providing a new longer-active anti-oxidant additive to a
19、n automobile engine oil. Development such as this have enabled servicing intervals to increase during the last decade from 3000 to 6000 to 9000 and now to 12000 miles. Note that most purchasers of chemicals acquire them for the effects that they produce i.e. a specific use. Teflon, or polytetrafluor
20、oethylene (PTFE), may be purchased because it imparts a non-stick surface to cooking pots and pans, thereby making them easier to clean.(1)产品开发。产品开发不仅包括一种新药的发明和生产，还包括，比如说，给一种汽车发动机机油提供更长时效的抗氧化添加剂。这种产品的开发已经使（发动机）的保养周期在最近的十年中从 3000 英里提高到 6000、9000 现在已提高到 12000 英里。请注意，大部分的买家所需要的是化工产品能创造出来的效果，亦即某种特殊的用途。T
21、dflon，或称聚四氟乙烯（PTFE）被购买是因为它能使炒菜锅、盆表面不粘，易于清洗。(2) Process development. Process development covers not only developing a manufacturing process for an entirely new product but also a new process or route for an existing product. The push for the latter may originate for one or more of the following reaso
22、ns: availability of new technology, change in the availability and/or cost of raw materials. Manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer is an example of this. Its manufacturing route has changed several times owing to changing economics, technology and raw materials. Another stimulus is a marked increase
23、 in demand and hence sales volume which can have a major effect on the economics of the process. The early days of penicillin manufacture afford a good example of this.（2）工艺开发。工艺开发不仅包括为一种全新的产品设计一套制造工艺，还包括为现有的产品设计新的工艺或方案。而要进行后者时可能源于下面的一个或几个原因：新技术的利用、原材料的获得或价格发生了变化。氯乙烯单聚物的制造就是这样的一个例子。它的制造方法随着经济、技术和原材料
24、的变化改变了好几次。另一个刺激因素是需求和销售量的显著增加。而销售量对生产流程的经济效益有很大影响。Penicillin 早期的制造就为此提供了一个很好的例子。The ability of penicillin to prevent the onset of septicemia in battle wounds during the Second World War (19391945) resulted in an enormous demand for it to be produced in quantity. Up until then it had only been produc
25、ed in small amounts on the surface of the fermentation broth in milk bottles! An enormous R&D effort jointly in the U.S. and the U.K. resulted in two major improvements to the process. Firstly a different strain of the mould gave much better yields than the original Penicillium notatum. Secondly the
26、 major process development was the introduction of the deep submerged fermentation process. Here the fermentation takes place throughout the broth, provided sterile air is constantly, and vigorously, blown through it. This has enabled the process to be scaled up enormously to modern stainless steel
27、fermenters having a capacity in excess of 50000 liters. It is salutary to note that in the first world war (1914 1919) more soldiers died from septicemia of their wounds than were actually killed outright on the battlefield!Penicillin 能预防战争中因伤口感染引发的败血症，因而在第二次世界大战（1939-1945）中，penicillin 的需求量非常大，需要大量生
28、产。而在那时，penicillin 只能用在瓶装牛奶表面发酵的方法小量的生产。英国和美国投入了巨大的人力物力联合进行研制和开发，对生产流程做出了两个重大的改进。首先用一个不同的菌株黄霉菌代替原来的青霉，使产量大大提高。第二个重大的流程开发是引进了深层发酵过程。只要在培养液中持续通入大量纯化空气，发酵就能在所有部位进行。这使生产能力大大地增加，达到现代不锈钢发酵器的容量，即 5000 升以上。而在第一次世界大战中，死于伤口感染的士兵比直接死于战场上的人还要多。注意到这一点不能不让我们心存感激。Process development for a new product depends on thi
29、ngs such as the scale on which it is to be manufactured, the by-products formed and their removal/recovery, and required purity. Data will be acquired during this development stage using semi-technical plant (up to 100 liters capacity) which will be invaluable in the design of the actual manufacturi
30、ng plant. If the plant is to be a very large capacity, continuously operating one, e.g. petrochemical or ammonia, then a pilot plant will first be built and operated to test out the process and acquire more data, these semi-technical or pilot plants will be required for testing, e.g., a pesticide, o
31、r customer evaluation, e.g., a new polymer.对一个新产品进行开发要考虑产品生产的规模、产生的副产品以及脱除/回收，产品所要求的纯度。在开发阶段利用中试车间（最大容量可达 100 升）获得的运行参数对实际制造厂的设计是非常宝贵的。如果工厂生产能力很大，且是连续化生产，例如石油化学品或氨的生产；那么要先建立一个中试车间，运转并测试流程以获得更多的数据。他们需要测试产品的性质，如杀虫剂，或进行消费评估，如一种新的聚合物。Note that by-products can has a major influence on the economics of a
32、chemical process. Phenol manufacture provides a striking example of this. The original route, the benzenesulphonic acid route, has become obsolete because demand for its by-produce sodium sulfite (2.2 tons/l ton phenol) has dried up. Its recovery and disposal will therefore be an additional charge o
33、n the process, thus increasing the cost of the phenol. In contrast the cumene route owes its economic advantage over all the other routes to the strong demand for the by-product acetone (0.6 tons/l ton phenol).The sale of this therefore reduces the net cost of the phenol.注意，副产品对于化学过程的经济效益也有很大的影响。苯酚的
34、生产就是一个有代表性的例子。早期的苯磺酸法，由于对它的副产品亚硫酸钠的需求枯竭而变的过时。亚硫酸钠需回收和处理成为生产过程附加的费用，增加了生产酚的成本。相反，异丙基苯方法，在经济效益方面优于所有其他方法，就在于市场对于它的副产品丙酮的迫切需求。丙酮的销售所得降低了苯酚的净成本。A major part of the process development activity for a mew plant is to minimize, or ideally prevent by designing out, waste production and hence possible pollut
35、ion. The economic and environmental advantages of this are obvious.对一个新产品进行工艺开发的一个重要部分是通过设计把废物排放减到最低，或尽可能地防止可能的污染，这样做带来的经济效益和环境效益是显而易见的。Finally it should be noted that process development requires a big team effort between chemists, chemical engineers, and electrical and mechanical engineers to be s
36、uccessful.最后要注意，工艺开发需要包括化学家、化学工程师、电子和机械工程师这样一支庞大队伍的协同合作才能取得成功。（3) Process improvement. Process improvement relates to processes which are already operating. It may be a problem that has arisen and stopped production. In this situation there is a lot of pressure to find a solution as soon as possible
37、 so that production can restart, since down time costs money.（3）工艺改进。工艺改进与已有的的工艺有关。已有工艺可能出现了某个问题而被迫停产。在这种情形下，就面临着很大的压力要尽快地解决问题以便生产重新开始，因为故障期是要耗资的。More commonly, however, process improvement will be directed at improving the profitability of the process. This might be achieved in a number of ways. Fo
38、r example, improving the yield by optimizing the process, increasing the capacity by introducing a new catalyst, or lowering the energy requirements of the process. An example of the latter was the introduction of turbo compressors in the production of ammonia by the Haber process. This reduced util
39、ity costs (mainly electricity) from $6.66 to %0.56 per ton of ammonia produced. Improving the quality of the product, by process modification, may lead to new markets for the product.然而，更为常见的，工艺改进是为了提高生产过程的利润。这可以通过很多途径实现。例如通过优化流程提高产量，引进新的催化剂提高生产能力，或降低生产过程所需要的能量。对于后者，可以举一个例子加以说明，哈伯法合成氨的过程中涡轮压缩机的引进。这使
40、生产氨的效用成本（主要是电）从每吨 6.66 美元下降到 0.56 美元。通过工艺的改善提高产品质量也会为产品打开新的市场。In recent years, however, the most important process improvement activity has been to reduce the environmental impact of the process, i.e., to prevent the process causing any pollution. Clearly there have been two interlinked driving forc
41、es for this. Firstly, the publics concern about the safety of chemicals and their effect on the environment, and the legislation which has followed as a result of this. Secondly the cost to the manufacturer of having to treat waste (i.e., material which cannot be recovered and used r sold) so that i
42、t can be safely disposed of, say by pumping into a river. This obviously represents a charge on the process which will increase the cost of the chemical being made. The potential for improvement by reducing the amount of waste is self-evident.然而，近年来，最重要的工艺改进行为主要是减少生产过程对环境的影响，亦即防止生产过程所引起的污染。很明显，有两个相关
43、连的因素推动这样做。第一，公众对化学产品的安全性及其对环境所产生影响的关注以及由此而制订出来的法律；第二，生产者必须花钱对废物进行处理以便它能安全地清除，比如说，排放到河水中。显然这是生产过程的又一笔费用，它将增加所生产化学产品的成本。通过减少废物数量进行工艺改进其潜能是不言而喻的。Note, however, with a plant which has already been built and is operating there are usually only very limited physical changes which can be made to the plant
44、to achieve the above aims. Hence the importance, already mentioned, of eliminating waste production at the design stage of a new plant. Conserving energy and thus reducing energy cost has been another major preoccupation in recent years.然而，请注意，对于一个已经建好并正在运行的工厂来说，只能做一些有限的改变来达到上述目的。因此，上面所提到的减少废品的重要性应在
45、新公厂的设计阶段加以考虑。近年来另一个当务之急是保护能源及降低能源消耗。(4) Applications development. Clearly the discovery of new applications or uses for a product can increase or prolong its profitability. Not only does this generate more income but the resulting increased scale of production can lead to lower unit costs and increa
46、sed profit. An example is PVC whose early uses included records and plastic raincoats. Applications which came later included plastic bags and particularly engineering uses in pipes and guttering. （4）应用开发。显然发掘一个产品新的用处或新的用途能拓宽它的获利渠道。这不仅能创造更多的收入，而且由于产量的增加使单元生产成本降低，从而使利润提高。举例来说，PVC 早期是用来制造唱片和塑料雨衣的，后来的用
47、途扩展到塑料薄膜，特别是工程上所使用的管子和排水槽。Emphasis has already been placed on the fact that chemicals are usually purchased for the effect, or particular use, or application which they have. This often means that there will be close liaison between the chemical companies technical sales representatives and the cust
48、omer, and the level of technical support for the customer can be a major factor in winning sales. Research and development chemists provide the support for these applications developments. An example is CF3CH3F. This is the first of the CFC replacements and has been developed as a extracting natural
49、 products from plant materials. In no way was this envisaged when the compound was first being made for use as a refrigerant gas, but it clearly is an example of applications development.我们已经强调了化学产品是由于它们的效果，或特殊的用途、用处而得以售出这个事实。这就意味着化工产品公司的技术销售代表与顾客之间应有密切的联系。对顾客的技术支持水平往往是赢得销售的一个重要的因素。进行研究和开发的化学家们为这些应用开发提供了帮助。CF 3CH3F 的制造就是一个例子。它最开始是用来做含氟氯烃的替代物作制冷剂的。然而近来发现它还可以用作溶剂从植物中提取出天然物质。当它首次作为制冷剂被制造时，固然没有预计到这一点，但它显然也是应用开发的一个例子。3.Variations in R&D Activities across the Chemical IndustryBoth the nature and amount of R&D carried out varies significantly across the various sectors of the chemic
