1、4. Linguistic Description,Linguistic Description,4.1 The Aims of Stylistics in Linguistic Description 4.2 Levels of Language 4.3 Stylistic Features 4.4 Procedure of Linguistic Description 4.5 The Principle Description and Analysis in This Book,4.1 The Aims of Stylistics in Linguistic Description,Sty
2、listics aims at providing a methodology of analysis- a clear technique of description which, ideally, will allow any persons to cope with any text they want to study, a procedure that can ensure that no items of stylistic significance is overlooked.,4.2 Levels of Language,There are three aspects in
3、a speech event: SUBSTANCE: the audible sound or visible marks FORM: the meaningful patterns SITUATION: the relevant extra-texual circumstances,The substantial aspect the level of phonology (graphonology) The formal aspect the level of lexis and grammar The situational aspect the level of semantics,
4、the contextual relations between situation and form,4.2.1 The Level of Phonology/Graphology,PHONOLOGY is the study of the rules for the organization of the sound systems of a language. Phonological level is the expression or realization of language in its spoken form.,4.2.1.2 The Level of Graphology
5、,GRAPHOLOGY is the study of the writing system of a language. Graphological level is the expression or realization of language in its written form.,4.2.2 The level of Lexis and Grammar,Morphology构词法 and Syntax语法;句法 GRAMMAR is the central part of a linguistic statement. It studies the structure of un
6、its called sentences in a language, and the way these function in sequences.,4. 2. 2. 1 Morphology and syntax,Traditionally, grammar is divided into MORPHOLOGY which studies the internal structure of words (and of the rules governing their formation), and SYNTAX which studies their external relation
7、ships in a sentence.,4.2.2.2 The Level of Lexicology,LEXICOLOGY(词汇学) studies the choice of specific LEXICAL ITEMs (units of vocabulary) in a text, their distribution in relation to one another, and their meanings.,4. 2.3 The Level of Semantics,SEMANTICs, in this book, studies the overall meaning of
8、a text, the meaning derived not from the formal properties of words and structures but from the way sentences/utterances are used and the way they are related to the context in which they are used/uttered.,4.3 Stylistic Features,The situationally bound features are stylistically significant features
9、-what we call STYLISTIC FEATUREs. Stylistic features can be found at the three distinct level of language: phonological/graphological, lexicogrammatical, Semantic.,4. 3- 1 Stylistic Features at the First Level,The first level phonology/graphology will be discussed under the headings of phonological
10、features and graphological features respectively.,4.3.1.1 Phonological features,The sound system of the English language:Segmentals (sound segments); Supra-segmentals (supra-sound segments),Phonological features,SEGMENTALs sounds broken into smallest units, called phonemes, including consonants and
11、vowels SUPRA-SEGMENTALs (or PROSODIC FEATUREs) sounds that extend over longer stretches of spoken text, co-existing with the segmentals that occupy those stretches; such as syllable stress, rhythm, and intonation.,4.3.1.1.1 Segmental features,Individual sounds can be stylistically significant in tha
12、t: 1) Isolated sounds may reflect aspects of reality what we call ONOMATOPOEIA or the use of words which imitate natural sounds,Eg. The cow mooed. The bull bellowed. The chicken cheeped. The cock cockadoodledooed. The pig grunted. The dog barked. The duck quacked. The goat bleated. The door banged o
13、pen. They slapped the book shut. The actor was hissed off the stage.,Segmental features,2) Certain sound clusters may relate to SOUND SYMBOLISM sounds felt to be in some way appropriate to the meanings expressed. For instance, the initial sl- is often symbolic of slipperiness in words like slide, sl
14、ip, slither, slush, sluice, sludge, sleak,-ump(eg, thump, bump, dump, stump, chump) -gl(eg, glimmer, glimpse, glisten, glow, gleam, glare, glitter),Segmental features,3) ASSIMILATION (change of one sound into another at word boundaries in connected speech because of the influence of an adjacent soun
15、d) and ELISION (omission of sounds as in oer, heavn)are likely to occur in rapid or informal connected speech.,Segmental features,4) Repetition of sounds may arouse the addressees sensitivity to the sound quality of a text, which includes:ALLITERATION-repetition of the previous initial consonant; as
16、 in: Round the rock runs the river.,Segmental features,ASSONANCE-repetition of the (stressed) vowel but with a different end consonant; as in sharper/garter, plain/plate; and RHYMErepetition of the vowel with the same end consonant, as in feat/beat/sweet.,C V C-weal-woe (Alliteration) C V C-cut - ru
17、n (Assonance) C V C-fits-starts (Consonance) C V C-wimp-limp (Rhyme),4.3.1.1.2 Supra-segmental features,Supra-segmental features: Those run over a sequence of sound segments. stress shythm and intonation pitch height and pitch range pause tempo,Supra-segmental features,STRESS is the prominence (ie t
18、he force and intensity of air coming from the lung-loudness) given to one part of a word or longer utterance. Word stress is important in making a difference in meaning in word, compounds and phrases.Stress in connected speech is subject to the speakers will and the meaning he/she wishes to convey.,
19、Supra-segmental features,John bought that new car yesterday. What meanings are there if each word is stressed respectively? How to stress can give the meaning of: How could he have afforded? Where did he get the money? How incredible! I wouldnt believe that. What a fool he is! It was only newly-pain
20、ted and not new at all,Supra-segmental features,2) RHYTHM is the pattern formed by the stresses perceived as peaks of prominence or beats. In speech there are generally three types of rhythm: (a) a type which requires all or most of the content-words fully stressed and is pronounced in a rather leis
21、urely and deliberate way,Supra-segmental features,(b) a type which has some content-words unstressed and is pronounced in a rather brisk and lively way.(c) a type which requires only a few stresses for special prominence so as to convey a particular attitude or emphasis,Supra-segmental features,3) I
22、NTONATION is the distinctive pattern of rise and fall in PITCH-the level of voice, high or low-taking place during connected speech. English is marked off into TONE UNITs brief stretches usually corresponding to units of information. Each tone unit contains at least one syllable marked for pitch pro
23、minence.,Supra-segmental features,4) Pitch height and pitch range The point on the pitch scale at which a stressed syllable occurs in relation to the previous syllable is what we call PITCH HEIGHT. The width of pitch movement on the tonic syllable or from stress to stress is called PITCH RANGE.,Supr
24、a-segmental features,In speech fluctuation in pitch height and pitch range can involve the audience deeper in what is being conveyed and add to its dramatic effect.,Supra-segmental features,5) PAUSE is the temporary stop or silence in the flow of speech utterance together with the tone unit. Voiced
25、pause like/m/,/o:/,/om/ often shows the normal non-fluency of casual or spontaneous speech, or the speakers signal that he or she is not yet through, or sometimes the speakers hesitance or nervousness.,Supra-segmental features,6) TEMPO refers to the relative speed of utterance. A slow tempo is relat
26、ed to special care and seriousness or the state of being hesitant, doubtful or low-spirited. A fast tempo suggests an off-hand dismissal or cheerful levity, or excitement or impatience.,4.3.1.2 Graphological features,The graphological level concerns the use of: the alphabet, the number system, punct
27、uation, capitalization, headlining, italicizing, bracketing, diagramming, paragraphing, spacing, etc.,Graphological features,So far as the types used in printing are concerned, we have three kinds: roman, italic, bold, each having its capital, small capital and lower-case letter. The styles include
28、Gothic, old style, modern style, Egyptian style, sanserif, script, etc.,Graphological features,Different registers make particular use of the graphological features: Size of print and capitalization in newspaper layouts; various type sizes and styles in dictionaries; placement of blocks in legal doc
29、uments; special line lengths in poetry; different density of punctuation in different texts, etc.,4.3.2 Stylistic Features at the Second Level,The second level has two components-grammar and lexis, each including different kinds of patterns.,4.3.e. 1 Grammatical features,Under grammar, we shall main
30、ly discuss sentence type, clause type, group type and word type.,4. 3. 2. 1.1 Sentence type,various kinds of sentences discussed in traditional terms: declarative, interrogative, imperative or exclamatory; simple, compound, complex or compound-complex; complete or elliptical.,Sentence type,The styli
31、stic analysis of sentence types may tell us such things as whether a variety makes use of a particular type of sentence to the exclusion of others .,Sentence type,STATEMENT, QUESTION, COMMAND,SIMPLE SENTENCE, ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE,PERIODIC SENTENCE , LOOSE SENTENCE, PARALLELISM ,ANTITHESIS,RHETORICAL
32、QUESTION,SENTENCE LENGTH,It is a truth universally acknowledged that a man in possession of a fortune must be in want a wife.,Sentence type,The high proportion of SIMPLE SENTENCEs and ELLIPTICAL SENTENCEs is characteristic of informal speech or personal letters; PERIODIC SENTENCE is a kind of comple
33、x sentence pattern as dependent clauses preceding the main clause. Usually it is characteristic of writing rather than speech and of formal kinds of prose.,Sentence type,LOOSE SENTENCE a complex sentence in which the main clause comes first, often found in speech or informal kinds of prose.,Sentence
34、 type,PARALLELISM is the repetition of the same structural pattern. Parallelism with contrast is known as ANTITHESIS.Parallelism is a feature of prose styles and public oratory for emphasis. It is a striking feature in poetic language.,Sentence type,RHETORICAL QUESTION is a kind of question which do
35、es not expect an answer, since it really asserts something that is known to the addressee, and cannot be denied. In public speaking, and in writings of political agitation, rhetorical questions are often employed as persuasive devices to appeal to the addressees outburst of natural feelings.,Sentenc
36、e type,SENTENCE LENGTH in a text:Shorter sentences are often found in speech or on other informal occasions, such as advertising, news headlines, slogans;whereas longer sentences are used in writing or on other formal occasions such as science theses, official documents, formal speeches.,4.3.2.1.2 C
37、lause type,Clause type deals with main kinds of clauses: independent clauses, or dependent clauses; non-finite structures (infinitive/-ing/-ed structures); clause elements: S (subject), P (predicator), o (object), C (complement), A (adverbial).,Clause type,Stylistic analysis may tell us:what types o
38、f dependent clauses are favoured in a text: relative, adverbial, nominal (that-/wh-);what types of non-finite structure are common;,Clause type,whether there is anything distinctive about the elements of structure: the proportion of nouns to verbs, frequency of objects, complements, adverbials, freq
39、uency of transitive verb constructions; whether there are any unusual orderings (fronting of object or complement, predicator before subject, initial adverbials), etc.,4. 3.2.1.3 Group type,Group type refers to various types of nominal groups and verbal groups. NOMINAL GROUPs consist of a noun, or p
40、ronoun, numeral, some non-finite or nominal structures operating as head with or without modification. There are two types of such groups: premodified nominal groups,postmodified nominal groups,4.3.2.1.4 Word type,Word type is discussable in terms of traditional morphology: root, prefix and suffix.,
41、Word type,Under this heading, we may note what distinctive types of word formation are there in a text: 1) frequent COMPOUNDs (words consisting of two or more parts as childcare) 2) complex AFFIXATION (a letter or sound added to the beginning of a word, called PREFIX),Word type,3) deviant forms such
42、 asPORTMANTEAU words (words made by combining two words, as motel=motor + hotel) 4) NONCE words (words coined for one occasion, as man-unkind) 5) CONVERSION (for instance, a noun changes into a verb, as Dont brother me),Word type,6) PUNs (humorous use of words which sound the same or of two meanings
43、 of the same word; as in Is life worth living? That depends on the live?) Seven days without water makes one weak.,4.3.2.2 Lexical features,Lexical features General wording inclination Connotative meaning Collocation,4.3.2.2.1 General wording inclination,whether the vocabulary of a text is simple or
44、 complex, descriptive or evaluative, general or specific;the complexity can be measured by the number of morphemes a word has, or simply by the number of syllables in a word. (commence, begin),General wording inclination,The more formal/informative a text is, the more complex its vocabulary,4. 3.2.2
45、.2 Connotative meaning,CONNOTATIVE MEANING refers to all kinds of associations words may evoke, particularly in certain emotional, situational contexts. DENOTATIVE MEANING: the basic or central referential meaning of words.,Janet! Donkeys! Horse, steed, nag, gee-gee,Connotative meaning,words may evo
46、ke different connotations to people of different nations, ethnic groups and other social background. In literature, connotative meanings are particularly exploited and expected. But in the register of science, and other technical or informative registers, associative meanings are suppressed with onl
47、y the desired denotative meaning retained.,Connotative meaning,Words having stylistic coloring: SLANG, ARCHAISM, NEOLOGISM, JARGON, ARGOT,Colloquialism,Spoon(); hedgehog();juicy() Feller=fellow; gall=girl; baccy=tobacco Granny; doggy; daddy; booklet Wet blanket; pot luck; do-gooders; A-one,slang,Cut
48、 class; Apple-polishing Bracelets Clock watcher Cancer stick,archaism,Hereat = because of this; Hereof = of this, concerning this; Thereat = at that point, place or time; Whereof = of what or which person or thing; Thou; thee; thine,neologism,Earthrise; moonwalk; moonship; soft landing; Black hole;
49、the big bang theory; Genetic code; antimatter; Open-heart surgery; heart man; Test-tube baby; transsexual operation; E-mail; data bank; download; hypertext Footballer, preschooler; second-guesser,neologism,Toasty; Christmasy; weatherwise; Figurewise; housingwise,4.3.2.2.3 Collocation,COLLOCATION ref
50、ers to the habitual or expected co-occurrence of words.The meaning of a word depends on its immediate context- its nearby words which are its COLLOCATEs.,The soup is fairly hot. The soup is rather hot.,Collocation,Words having similar collocational range belong to the same LEXICAL SET. Study of the characteristic lexical sets of a literary text will help reveal its major theme.,
