1、,Chapter 4 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis (词的意义与成分分析),Objectives: Discuss meanings of meaning; Explain types of meaning. Teaching focus: Meanings of meaning; 词的意义 Motivation of meaning; 词的理据 Types of meaning; 词义的分类 Components of word meaning.词义的成分分析,“Meaning”,“什么是意义？”Its easy to say, but har
2、d to answer.因为意义(meaning)本身都有各种意义，即人们通常用这个词表达不同的意思。Meanings of “Meaning”,植树节，小朋友们经常组织一些有意义的活动,价值，目的，重要性“Whats the meaning of this word?”含义或意思the idea or sense that the word represents,“意义”有一定的多义性和复杂性，一直备受关注。很多学者对它进行探究。 柏拉图(Plato): 词义就是对事物，行为和属性的命名。 洪堡特：词语是单个概念的符号，词始终针对概念。 弗斯：词语或语言是在具体语境中的词语意义的行为学说。,
3、奥格登&理查兹,意义的意义(The Meaning of Meaning)区分了意义的16种不同的意义：P50语言意义language meaningsemantic meaning语义,什么是语义,语义和形式是语言的两大构成要素。从广义上来说，语义体现人类的思想和思维，没有语义人们就没有相互的沟通，理解和交往。从狭义上来说，语义可指词和句子所表示的语言本身的意义，即词义和句义。Semantics 语义学-language meaningliteral meaningword and sentence meaning,4.1 Word Meaning,What is word meaning?
4、指称概念行为,1. 指称角度（reference）词是对相关事物的命名或指称。词(words)=事物(things)The word is the thing, and the thing is the word.,London,DeskBook,缺陷：在日常所使用的大量词汇中，有许多词无法使人们看到所指称的事物是什么。ask, popular, beautiful, difficult, thetradition, order, meaning.,2. 概念角度(Concept)奥格登和理查兹“词义三角” (triangle of significance): the relation be
5、tween a word and a thing it refers to is not direct. It is mediated by concept. In a tree diagram(树形图), the relation is shown as follows:concept意义meaningword thing形式form,Concept means the common feature shared by all the concrete things.desk- a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs findin
6、g the concept of desk, or summing up the main featuresthe object,3. 行为角度(behavior)布龙菲尔德(Bloomfield) 在其语言论一书中阐述了有关词的意义的一种行为主义观点：人们在对话语使用的情境进行研究的时候，可以单独分离出意义刺激(S),这种刺激诱人说出话语(r),最后导致由这段话语(s)引起的行为结果(反应R)。 如图：Srs-R,Hungry刺激(S)请求(r)(s)反应(R),刺激Stimuli词语Words反应Response,4.2词的理据 Motivation,The debate over the
7、 connection between sound and meaning The naturalists maintain there is a natural/intrinsic connection between sound and meaning. The Conventionalists, on the other hand, hold that the relations between sound and meaning are conventional and arbitrary. The meaning of a word is a kind of linguistic s
8、ocial contract.,Conventionality（约定俗成）That we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.玫瑰不叫玫瑰，依然芳香如故。-Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet Words have no meaning, people have meaning for them. 词本无义，人赋予之。- Eric Partridge,Conventionality 树-Chinese 木-Japanese arbre-French baun-Germany,4.2 词的理据Motivati
9、on,1.What is motivation理据?It refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its meaning.理据解释语言符号与意义之间的关系，即词与词义之间的联系。我们知道，词的形式与意义的关系是任意的和约定俗成的。所以，大多数词是没有理据的。换言之，符号和意义之间没有逻辑上的解释性。但是语言的任意性并不排除有相当一部分词存在着理据性。,我们可以通过分析一些英语词汇的形式和意义的理据，在某种程度上对它们之间存在的必然联系作出恰当的解释。从语音，构词，语义，词源分析词的理据。拟声理据形态理据语义理据词源理
10、据,5.2 Motivation,1. Onomatopoeic Motivation拟声理据It means the imitation of sounds by sounds.Onomatopoeia(拟声词) refers to a word that sounds like what it represents. For example, In Chinese, 叮咚，轰隆, wangwangwang. 在现代英语中，有些词的声音暗示了它们所表达的意义，因为这些词是通过模仿自然声音（人，动物和其他自然现象产生的声音）的方式创造的。 Examples in P55,4.2 Motivat
11、ion,2. Morphological motivation形态理据Words which were formed by means of morphological structure belong to the category of motivation by morphology.Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meanings of many of them are the sum total of the morphemes combined.,词素是意义的最小单位，复合词和派生词是多语素
12、词，其意义是这些词素意义的叠加。形态理据指的是有些词可以从构成该词的词缀或其他手段上分析其意义。 For example,speaker speak+ ermovement move+mentreadable read+able,在一般情况下，人们可以从每个词素的意义，即词缀和词干的意义，判断出词的意义， 例如，airmail: mail by air 航空信件reading lamp: lamp for reading 台灯mini-bus: medium-sized bus 中巴hopeless: without hope(没有希望),注意：有许多词的结构并不十分清楚，也就是说，其意义并不
13、是几个词素意义的叠加，对有些复合词绝不能望文生义，例如，black market 非法买卖，黑市greenhorn 初来乍到者，生手eggplant 茄子pineapple 菠萝boxing rings 拳击场,night cap 供睡觉前喝的酒sweet tooth 喜欢甜食的人,4.2 Motivation,3. Semantic Motivation语义理据It refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explains the connection betwee
14、n the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.语义理据指的是由词的概念意义所暗示的联想意义，这种理据解释了词的表面意义和形象意义之间的联系。概念意义是词义的核心，它直接地，明确地表示所指对象，所以概念意义又被称为“所指意义”。,词的概念意义一旦形成并且固定下来以后，这种比较明确的意义相对明确。关联意义是词的附带意义，包括词的感情色彩和文体意义等，这种意义非常不稳定，有较大的变化性，常因人，因事，因时，因地而异。 比如， father, dad, daddy, papa, the old man, male parent概念意义一致感情
15、，特定文体等方面的关联意义不一致,Examples,the mouth of a river 河口the foot of the hill 山脚The pen is mightier than the sword.笔锋利于剑。,5.2 Motivation,4. Etymological motivation词源理据 Etymological motivation denotes that the origins of words often throw light on their meanings.词的历史渊源决定或影响了词的意义，人们可以从它们的出处与其意义的关系找出词的理据。,E.g.
16、: Pen originally refers to a heavy quill or feather. Today the writing tool is still “pen”, but a meaning is not exactly the same as what it used to mean.Proper nouns, once they become common nouns, can be explained by their origins only.For example: a laconic answer 一个简短的回答Argus-eyed professor,Laco
17、nic 源于 Lakon ， 意为“一个拉哥尼亚人”， 它是希腊的一个地区名，斯巴达是其首府。以好战和纪律严明闻名的斯巴达人也同样因为言简意赅而闻名，laconic 这个词从1589年起被发现有言简意赅的意思起直到今天仍然被英国作家用来表示这一意思。 a laconic answer简洁的回答,Argus, 白眼巨人，阿格斯，古代希腊神话里面的一位巨人，长着有一百只眼睛，因此可以观察到所有方向的事物与动；后世以此来比喻机警的守卫，机灵的护卫。Argus-eyed professor 目光敏锐的教授,5.3 Types of meaning,Word meaning is made up of
18、various components which are interrelated and interdependent. These components are commonly described as types of meaning. 词义有各种相互联系与相互依存的不同成分组成，这些成分就是词义的种类。某个词的意义并非总是以单一的个体而存在，它往往是由几个方位，几个层次的意义所组成的一个意义统一体。,在词汇语义研究中，有不少的语言学曾试图从不同的角度和层面对词语的意义进行科学的分类。格赖斯(Grice)：固定意义，应用固定意义，语义情景意义，说话者的情景意义利奇(Leech): 语义
19、七分法,1. Grammatical Meaning & Lexical Meaning,Grammatical meaning indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as part of speech of words, singular and plural meaning of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional paradigm. (语法意义指词义中表示语法概念或关系的那部分意义。例如词类、名词的单复数、动词的时态意义及它们的屈折形式。)inflect
20、ional paradigm: all the inflectional forms of a word,Lexical meaning is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. (林承璋：词汇意义是词典中一个独立词的意义。在该词的所有形式中，其词汇意义相同。）,For example : The word-forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess dif
21、ferent grammatical meanings of tense, person, and so on, but in each of these forms we find one and the same semantic component.Lexical meaning-词汇意义,The features of conceptual meaning(概念意义的特征)1 人们对概念意义的理解不会因人而异。2 概念意义可分解成若干个最小的意义单位。一个词的概念意义一般可以通过其各个最小意义单位的组合来进行描述。这些最小的意义单位就是词汇的语义特征或语义成分。例如，animate,h
22、uman,adult,male就是对man, woman, boy, girl的概念意义进行区分的语义特征。,man: +animate, +human, +adult, +male woman: +animate, +human, +adult,-male boy: +animate, +human, -adult, +male girl: +animate, +human, -adult, -male 3 概念意义可随着社会的发展而发生变化。hospital: a place for tourists to get rest and amusement 供旅游者休息和娱乐的场所医院,4 一
23、个词的概念意义可能随着上下文的不同而不同。由于所处的语境不同，一个词可能有几个不同的概念意义。 例如，footHe hurt his foot this morning. 脚The man is five foot two. 5英尺2英寸,2. Associative Meaning,Conceptual meaning is meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning.概念意义是词典中所给的意义，是词义的核心。,Associative meaning is the secondary meaning s
24、upplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and indeterminate, liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, etc. 联想意义是概念意义的补充意义，是次要意义。它受语言外界因素如文化、经历、宗教、地域、出身、教育等的影响而变化，所以是开放性的，是不定的。,1) Connotative Meaning,It refe
25、rs to the overtones or associations suggested by the conceptual meaning. 内涵意义是由概念意义产生的言外之意或联想。 What connotations do you think “home”, “dragon” and “mother” might have?,The features of connotative meaning(内涵意义的特征)1 词的内涵意义可以因人而异，因不同年龄而异home: 家庭成员，亲情East or west, home is best. 千好万好，自家最好冷冰冰的，令人烦恼的，如坟墓似的
26、,2 某些词语的内涵意义带有民族特征dog 忠心，人类的朋友 3 内涵意义比较不稳定female, woman, lady : 女性的，柔弱的feminism 女权主义masculinity 男子气概,2) Stylistic Meaning/Social Meaning,Apart from their conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different styles. 很多词除了其概念意义外，还有文体色彩，以适应不同的文体风格。 In some
27、dictionaries, these stylistic features are clearly marked as formal, informal, literary, archaic, slang and so on.,Compare the following two groups of synonyms:,leave job cant tired ad,depart position cannot fatigued advertisement,domicile, residence, abode, home P60,3) Affective Meaning,Affective m
28、eaning expresses the speakers attitude towards the person or thing in question. This meaning can be overtly and explicitly conveyed simply by the choice of the right words.情感意义反映作者或说话人对所谈论的人或物、事态等表示的个人情感或态度。这种意义可以通过选用表情词直接了当地表现出来。,Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: apprecia
29、tive and pejorative/derogative. Words of positive overtones are used to show appreciation or the attitude of approval; those of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism.,appreciative pejorative,little famous slim/slender Determined Statesman Confidence Farmer publicity,Small no
30、torious skinny Pigheaded Politician Complacency Peasant propaganda,4) Collocative Meaning,It is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words with which it co-occurs.搭配意义即与之一起使用的词语所赋予的那部分意义。 搭配意义是由一个词从与它相结合的词的意义中所获得的各种联想构成的。他是必须与别的意义搭配在一起才能产生的意义，也就是说，该词的部分词义是由其前后的相关词所决定的。有些词(主要是一些同义词),虽然它们的“概
31、念意义”相同，但搭配能力不同，因而意义也有所不同。,比如，handsome, prettyhandsome+ boy/man/car/vessel/overcoat/palace/airlinerpretty+girl/lady/woman/flower/garden/colour/village,5）Reflective Meaning(反射意义),反射意义是一种能引起听众或读者有所反应或联想的意义。换言之，有些词具有这样的特点，当人们听到或读到他们时，总会联想起别的事情来。taboo words 禁忌语委婉词语 euphemistic expressionsbelly abdomen 腹部
32、,6) Thematic Meaning(主题意义),主题意义是说话者或作者借助组织信息的方式(如语序，强调手段，信息焦点的安排等)来传递的一种意义。 例如，1 Mrs. Smith donated the first prize.2 The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith.1: 主动结构，强调What2: 被动结构，强调Who它们传达的信息是不同的，强调的主题不一样。,I like Danish cheese best.Danish cheese I like best.Its Danish cheese that I like best.一般语气
33、较强语气最强语气,5.4 词义的分析,语义学作为研究语言单位和话语的意义的科学，是语言学的重要分支学科。与传统语音学，句法学等其他分支相比，词汇语义学作为一门独立的学科，只有几十年的历史。 发展进程：20世纪以前的传统语言学中，语义学没有独立地位20世纪50年代，人们开始借鉴音位学的特征分析法来研究各种语言中反应亲属关系的词，认为：词的意义并非不可分析的整体，分解后得到的语义特征又叫语义成分或词语义素。语义学主要以语义成分分析和语义场理论的产生为标志，成为一门独立的学科。,现代词汇语义学主要采用一下两种具有影响的语义研究方法：语义成分分析法(Componential Analysis)和语义场
34、理论(Semantic Field)。,Componential Analysis 成分分析对事物现象的反映以及由此产生的对现实现象的主观评价，形成词语所具备的词汇意义，简称词义。词义是语义系统中具有独立资格的语言意义单位，具有自主性，在组合中变化有限，是组成言语作品的基本语义材料。词义基本稳定，尤其是基本词汇的词义，几乎是历久不变的。,对词义的研究：词义的单位主要是义素。义素是语义系统中最小的语义单位，也是构成意义的语义成分。义素是从一组相关的词语中抽象出来的区别性语义特征。因此，义素也可被简称为语义特征(Semantic feature)，语义成分(Semantic component)或
35、语义标示(Semantic marker)。比如，human, adult, male, animate都属于语义特征，语义成分或语义标示。,What is componential analysis? The analysis of word meanings/componential analysis is often seen as a process of breaking down the sense of a word into its minimal components, which are known as semantic features 语义特征or sense com
36、ponents语义成分. Conventionally, these minimal components can be symbolized in terms of binarity/binary opposition对分法. Eg: +ADULT (adult), - ADULT (young).,man +HUMAN, +ADULT,+MALE,+ANIMATEwoman +HUMAN, +ADULT,MALE,+ANIMATEboy +HUMAN, -ADULT,+MALE,+ANIMATEgirl +HUMAN, -ADULT,-MALE,+ANIMATE,2. The advant
37、ages and disadvantages of componential analysis.Advantages:从应用的角度看，语义成分分析在现代语义研究中的应用价值主要体现在以下两个方面。 1 语义成分分析可以清楚，简明的为我们揭示出同一语言中近义词，反义词等复杂的词义关系，描述出这些词汇,各自所含意义的结构图式。语义成分分析有利于我们把握和比较词义之间的异同，恰当地选词造句并实现成功言语交际。man, woman, boy, girl 同属一个语义类，但语义上有差别，语义成分分析这个方法可以清楚地将他们的异同显示出来。,2 语义成分分析有助于说明词语的使用和组合的语义限制条件。a.
38、The boy was working hard at school.男孩在学校里读书用功。b. The boy was working hard in the factory.男孩在工厂里努力工作。童工,Disadvantage:带有主观随意性词义的的数量太多,2. 语义场论语义场是由语义系统中的一组具有一定共同语义特征的语义单位组成的聚合体。从词汇的角度看，语义场则是由在意义上有关联的一组词语所构成的集合。它是能在同一话题下使用的性质相近的词，或是能在同一位置上相互替换的词的集合。,例如，fruit: apple, pear, peach, apricot, date, mango, pi
39、neapple, orange, lemonkinship: grandfather, grandmother, father, mother, uncle, aunt, son, daughter, son-in-law, daughter-in-law, brother, sister, brother-in-law, sister-in-law, grandchildrenP66 “家畜”语义场,语义场的性质，主要表现在三个方面：层次性，系统性和相对性。1 层次性“家畜” “交通工具”Vehicle: car, ship, plane, train.Train:D字头动车组列车 Z字头直
40、达特快列车 T字头特快列车 K字头跨局快速列车 N字头管局内快速列车 L字头跨局临时旅客列车 A字头管局内临时旅客列车 Y字头旅游列车 G字头国际旅客列车 X字头行包专列,2 系统性 属于同一级语义场的词语，其词义是相互关联，相互制约的，缺少其一都不行。doctor-patientsell-buy,3 相对性语义场的构成是以词语的意义为单位的。同一个词可能有几个不同的义项，分属于几个不同的语义场。 比如， kinship relationship(亲属关系) Unclesocial communication(社会交际)uncle 可以被划分到不同的语义场中。一个词语从属于哪个语义场，并不是绝
41、对的，而是相对的。, 语义场的类型根据语义场中各语义单位之间的关系可以分为分类义场，顺序义场和关系义场。1 分类义场 语义场就是对事物进行分类，其实际的体现就是分类义场。colour: green, red, yellow, orange, blackstate of matter: solid, liquid, gas,2 顺序义场同一语义场的语言单位在语义上按照一定的规律递增或递减，或在时，空的框架内按一定的顺序排列，从而构成顺序义场，例如：one，two, three, four, five, six, sevenSunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday,3 关系义场语义单位之间存在着某种逻辑的，心理的，文化的，价值的关系，从而构成关系义场。关系义场中的词语具有相互依存性，可以进行关系推理，从一方到另一方。同义义场，反义义场,The End,
