1、Lecture 1,The 3 basic elements of English:,speech sounds grammar vocabulary,Lexicology: a branch of Linguistics which studies the origins and meanings of words. To be specific, they include aspects like the formal and semantic structure, semantic relationships, word formation and usage, the historic
2、al development and evolution of words, etc.,It has something to do with the following subjects:,形态学、语体学、词典学、词源学、特定文化背景等。,Aims and Significance of the Course:,To know the general rules of word formation which helps us enlarge our vocabulary.,To foster the ability to use “the right word”. As a saying
3、goes, “Right words in right places makes a good writing”.,To have a better awareness of language (English).,To get a deeper understanding of the culture of foreign countries. To sum up, English Lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course as well as as a practical one.What is a word? Please think b
4、y yourselves and give the definition of your own. The minimal free form of a language, which has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function.,What Does Vocabulary Refer To?,The total number of words in a language. In English, there are more than_ words. 100,00 B.100,000 C. one million D. one billi
5、on Including: Native vs. Alien,Classification of English words,Basic Word Stock:A. All national character Words that are commonly used. B. Stability ( relatively speaking)Have been in use for centuries. Some disappeared but many more are created.,C. Productivity(can form new words) D. Polysemy (vari
6、ous meanings, “book”; “man”: to man a dove) E. Collocability( form idioms, proverbs),Non-basic Words:,Terminology, jargon, slang, dialectal words, etc.,Content Words and Functional words,Native words and Borrowed words The latter can be divided into 4 types. What are they? (Homework for your self-st
7、udy),Lecture 2,(1) The Development of the English Vocabulary About 300 language families exist in the world, among which the Indo-European is widespread, having much influence on the development of English.,1) Old English vocabulary(4501150 AD) After Romans, 3 Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons a
8、nd Jutes controlled England. Their languageAnglo-Saxon also dominated the land. Common practice: combine 2 native words to create new words. It was a highly inflected language with about 50000-60000 words.,In the 9th century, some Norwegians and Danish invaded England, which brought some Scandinavia
9、n words such as: skirt, window, skill, birth, egg”,etc.,2) Middle English（11501500） The Normans invaded England from France in 1066 and many French words flowed into English.( state, judge, power, prince, court, crime, peace, battle, etc.),3) Modern English (1500-now) 2 sub-periods can be divided: E
10、arly Modern English(1500-1700) Because of the Renaissance, many Latin and Greek words entered English and English began to have a Latinate flavor.,b. Late Modern English After experiencing the Industrial Revolution and Bourgeois revolution, England became a great economic power and began to absorb w
11、ords from all major languages in the world. After World War II, more words are created by means of word-formation.,General Characteristics of Modern English,1. Receptivity 2. Simplicity of Inflection( esp. endings ) 3. relatively fixed word-orderAdvantahes and disadvantages co-exist in terms of lear
12、ning English.,Growth of Contemporary English Vocabulary,3 main sources of modern English vocabulary:,The rapid development of science and technology( moon walk, smart bomb) Social, economic and political changes(talk show, the fourth world, open university, chairperson) The influence of other cultur
13、es and languages (kungfu),Modes of Vocabulary Development,Creation 创新词most importantfruice, sportcast 2. Semantic change（旧词新义）economic way of creating new wordsweb, break, mouse 3. Borrowing 4. Reviving archaic or obsolete words, but insignificant especially to American English. (guess, sick, fall),
14、Chapter 3,Morphological Structure of English Words,Morphemes (词素),A word is the smallest unit of a language that stands alone to communicate meaning. Structurally, a word is not the smallest unit because many words can be separated into even smaller meaningful units.,Morphemes,Lets take internationa
15、lization as an example, which can be broken down into inter-, nation, -al, -ize, -ation, each having a meaning of its own. And these segments cannot be further divided; otherwise, they could not make any sense.,Morphemes,Undesirability- -un+ -desire+ -able+ -ityImprovement-im+ -prove+ -ment Unfaithf
16、ul-?,Definition of the morpheme,The morpheme is “the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words”.(Crystal, 1985),Morph 语素形式, 语子,The phonetic or orthographic strings or segments which realize morphemes are “ morphs”. (p.44)Cats, bags, matches: /s/, /z/, /iz/ 3 morphs 动词 be 的变化,Allomorph: 词
17、素变体,An allomorph is one of two or more complementary morphs which manifest a morpheme in its different phonological or morphological environments. cats, beds, horses, (-s, -z, -iz) feet, men; deer, fish 动词过去时态变化 ed, -ied; 不规则变化 词缀的变化 如： /p, b, m/前的否定前缀： 如 im- (否则多为in- ),Types of morphemes 1. free mo
18、rpheme(those that are meaningful and can be used freely and independently such as earth, wind, boy, bite, etc.) 2. bound morpheme (粘着词素） Mainly in derivative words recollection: How many bound morphemes?,Affixes,Forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or functionAlmost al
19、l affixes are bound morphemes Few can be used as independent words,Two groups of affixes,Inflectional affixes（屈折词缀）affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships or called inflectional morphemesModern English is an analytical language and only has a few inflectional affix
20、es. -s, -ed, -ing -er/est,Derivational Affixes(派生词缀),affixes added to other morphemes to create new wordstwo kinds :1. prefixes: come before the word2. suffixes: come after the word,比较相似又有所差异的几个概念,Root, Stem, Base What is root? (词根)the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without to
21、tal loss of identity (Crystal, 1985)a root is that part of a word form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed (Bauer, 1983),Stem 词干,The part of the word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed. 2 forms: 1root morpheme ( iron, gas) 2ro
22、ot morpheme + affixational moephemesmouthful, nation, national, nationalist,Base 词基,It is a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. It can be a root or a stem. For example, “internationalists”: Nation ( root, stem base) National Nationalist Internationalist ,Chapter 4 Word Formation,4.1. aff
23、ixation Prefix: a-(not, without), 如 amoral; neo-. pan-, mal-, macro-, etc. Suffix (page 61) 4.2. Compounding (composition) V. Adj. N. 2 words(or more than 2) put together Hot line; laser bomb; black hole; baby-sit; job-hop; window-shop; toothache;silkworm round-the-clock (negotiation),4.3. Conversio
24、n (转类法）词性转换 water the flower; book a ticket; man a bus Its a long wait; John is a cheat; Give me a push, OK? The poor; the accused; the deserted 4.4: Blending（拼缀法） Parts of 2 words are put together. Smog Smoke+fog botel-? boat+hotel,Exercise:,Tell us how the following are formed and what they mean:
25、chunnel; sitcom; comsat; brunch,4.5 Clipping,A. word clipping Clipping the front, back or both. telephone phone; advertisement ad; discotheque disco influenza flu; refrigerator fridge B. Phrase clipping pub (public house) zoo (zoological garden) pop (popular music),4.6 Acronymy,1. Initialisms UN, IO
26、C,UFO; TV, Can you work out what the following refer to? IMF, C/O, TB, TOEFL, H-bomb,International Monetary Fund(国际货币基金组织) care of (由转交) tuberculosis 肺炎 托福(Test of English as a Foreign Language) 氢弹(hydrogen bomb),2. Acronyms,Words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word. NATO Rad
27、ar(radio detecting and ranging) TEFL,4.7. backformation(逆生法) television-televise destructiondestruct beggarbeg donation donate automationautomate diagnosisdiagnose 一般是把(假定的)后缀去掉。,Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componential Analysis,5.1 Word Meaning 1. Reference 所指, referent(所指物) It indicates which thing
28、s are being talked about. Arbitrary, conventional ( dog) 2. Concept: result of human cognition The same concept can be expressed by many words(多),3. Sense: the meaning of meaningEvery word that has meaning has sense, but not every word has reference (but, yes,),Chapter 5 Word Meaning and Componentia
29、l Analysis,5.1 motivation (意义的)理据 语言符号与意义之间的联系（依据） 1. Onomatopoeic Motivation （拟声） tick-tuck; cuckoo; quack; (see the exercise) 2. Morphological Motivation Airmail mail by air; hopeless without hope But “greenhorn” is an exception,3. Semantic Motivation,e.g. The pen is mightier than the sword He is
30、fond of the bottle. The mouth of the river 常用的主要手段: A. metaphor (without like as) 隐喻 e.g. Life is a short summer. e.g. All the world is a stage.,b. metonymy(借代),The crown- king The Cambridge in the East Zhejiang Univ.C. Synecdoche (提喻) A part represents the whole, or vice versa The White House Ameri
31、can government,4. Etymological Motivation,Pen-羽毛-笔 laconic-Lacons(部落)-简要的It seems in English most of the words have no evident motivations.,Componential Analysis,Break down the sense of a word into its minimal components(traits),Semantic features,Man: +human +male +adult Woman: +human -male +adult B
32、oy, girl 可类推 boy girl ,The chair smiles happily.Why is this sentence odd?,Chapter Six,Sense Relations,Polysemy (多义关系） The development of a words semantic structure results in this phenomenon. 辐射型 radiation( “soft”) soft wind, soft words, soft drink, soft money, soft light, . 连锁型 concatenation (the o
33、riginal meaning is lost finally) Candidate-white-robed-候选人,2. Homonymy（同形同音异义关系）,1） perfect homonyms(same spelling and pronunciation) bank bear date 2) homograph(same spelling only) bow弓 bow鞠躬;,3) homophone(same pronunciation only),dear, deer right, write, rite sight, cite,3. Synonymy Most synonyms
34、are relative synonyms. stagger, reel, totterwalk unsteadily 摇摆； 蹒跚；老人/婴儿的脚步 alter change vary部分改变（大小、形状等）本质的变化，或以甲代替乙侧重变化的多样性: Their clothes in color. Homework: tell the difference of the synonyms: limit; restrict; confine,The differences between synonyms are mainly:,Semantic e.g. comprehend, unders
35、tand rich, wealthy; work, toil want, wish, desire: 语义强度递增,2)Affective and stylistic difference,statesman politician vocalist singer,4. Antonymy(反义）,1） Complementaries（矛盾反义词） Such as: dead-alive; male-female; same-different; single-married 特点：非此即彼; 无比较级； 不能用very 修饰,2) Contrary terms （对立反义词） such as:
36、rich-poor; old-young; big-small; beautiful-ugly hot-cold; love-hate 特点：相比较而存在；可中间插入词语（gradability) hot warm cool cold love like indifference antipathy hate,3) Converses（相对/关系反义词）,相对立而又依存，侧重于彼此的关系 Such as: parent/child; husband/wife employer/employee; seller/buyer give/receive; lend/borrow Many words
37、 have synonyms but have no antonyms. read, house, magazine?,6.5 Hyponymy,6.6 Semantic Field,German linguist Trier first raised the theory. Genus vs. Species: the basic concept of semantic field Animal: sheep, tiger, wolf, dog, catliving animal plant,Every word can be put in a certain semantic field
38、theoretically. Subordinates form a semantic field or fields. Pick out the superordinates from the groups of words: vegetable, spinach, cabbage, turnip vegetable! wood, stone, cement, building material building material!,Words meanings can be more clearly defined in a semantic field, otherwise they will be ambiguous. In reading, we develop it into “context”, a broader sense.,e.g. rose rose, black, purple, gray, pink chrysanthemum, tulip, lily, rose,
